Law and the power of feminism: how marriage lost its power to oppress women

In Feminism and the Power of Law Carol Smart argued that feminists should use non-legal strategies rather than looking to law to bring about women’s liberation. This article seeks to demonstrate that, as far as marriage is concerned, she was right. Statistics and contemporary commentary show how marriage, once the ultimate and only acceptable status for women, has declined in social significance to such an extent that today it is a mere lifestyle choice. This is due to many factors, including the ‘sexual revolution’ of the 1960s, improved education and job opportunities for women, and divorce law reform, but the catalyst for change was the feminist critique that called for the abandonment (rather than the reform) of the institution and made the unmarried state possible for women. I conclude that this loss of significance has been more beneficial to British women in terms of the possibility of ‘liberation’ than appeals for legal change and recognition, and that we should continue to be wary of looking to law to solve women’s problems.

Assessing the impact of occupant behaviour on the electricity consumption for lighting and small power in office buildings

Lighting and small power will typically account for more than half of the total electricity consumption in an office building. Significant variations in electricity used by different tenants suggest that occupants can have a significant impact on the electricity demand for these end-uses. Yet current modelling techniques fail to represent the interaction between occupant and the building environment in a realistic manner. Understanding the impact of such behaviours is crucial to improve the methodology behind current energy modelling techniques, aiming to minimise the significant gap between predicted and in-use performance of buildings. A better understanding of the impact of occupant behaviour on electricity consumption can also inform appropriate energy saving strategies focused on behavioural change. This paper reports on a study aiming to assess the intent of occupants to switch off lighting and appliances when not in use in office buildings. Based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the assessment takes the form of a questionnaire and investigates three predictors to behaviour individually: 1) behavioural attitude; 2) subjective norms; 3) perceived behavioural control. The paper details the development of the assessment procedure and discusses preliminary findings from the study. The questionnaire results are compared against electricity consumption data for individual zones within a multi-tenanted office building. Initial results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between perceived behavioural control and energy consumption for lighting and small power

Search engine liability for autocomplete suggestions: personality, privacy and the power of the algorithm

This article is concerned with the liability of search engines for algorithmically produced search suggestions, such as through Google’s ‘autocomplete’ function. Liability in this context may arise when automatically generated associations have an offensive or defamatory meaning, or may even induce infringement of intellectual property rights. The increasing number of cases that have been brought before courts all over the world puts forward questions on the conflict of fundamental freedoms of speech and access to information on the one hand, and personality rights of individuals— under a broader right of informational self-determination—on the other. In the light of the recent judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (EU) in Google Spain v AEPD, this article concludes that many requests for removal of suggestions including private individuals’ information will be successful on the basis of EU data protection law, even absent prejudice to the person concerned.

Interaction of plant growth regulators and reactive oxygen species to regulate petal senescence in wallflowers (Erysimum linifolium)

Background In many species floral senescence is coordinated by ethylene. Endogenous levels rise, and exogenous application accelerates senescence. Furthermore, floral senescence is often associated with increased reactive oxygen species, and is delayed by exogenously applied cytokinin. However, how these processes are linked remains largely unresolved. Erysimum linifolium (wallflower) provides an excellent model for understanding these interactions due to its easily staged flowers and close taxonomic relationship to Arabidopsis. This has facilitated microarray analysis of gene expression during petal senescence and provided gene markers for following the effects of treatments on different regulatory pathways. Results In detached Erysimum linifolium (wallflower) flowers ethylene production peaks in open flowers. Furthermore senescence is delayed by treatments with the ethylene signalling inhibitor silver thiosulphate, and accelerated with ethylene released by 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid. Both treatments with exogenous cytokinin, or 6-methyl purine (which is an inhibitor of cytokinin oxidase), delay petal senescence. However, treatment with cytokinin also increases ethylene biosynthesis. Despite the similar effects on senescence, transcript abundance of gene markers is affected differentially by the treatments. A significant rise in transcript abundance of WLS73 (a putative aminocyclopropanecarboxylate oxidase) was abolished by cytokinin or 6-methyl purine treatments. In contrast, WFSAG12 transcript (a senescence marker) continued to accumulate significantly, albeit at a reduced rate. Silver thiosulphate suppressed the increase in transcript abundance both of WFSAG12 and WLS73. Activity of reactive oxygen species scavenging enzymes changed during senescence. Treatments that increased cytokinin levels, or inhibited ethylene action, reduced accumulation of hydrogen peroxide. Furthermore, although auxin levels rose with senescence, treatments that delayed early senescence did not affect transcript abundance of WPS46, an auxin-induced gene. Conclusions A model for the interaction between cytokinins, ethylene, reactive oxygen species and auxin in the regulation of floral senescence in wallflowers is proposed. The combined increase in ethylene and reduction in cytokinin triggers the initiation of senescence and these two plant growth regulators directly or indirectly result in increased reactive oxygen species levels. A fall in conjugated auxin and/or the total auxin pool eventually triggers abscission.

Small states, great power? Gaining influence through intrinsic, derivative, and collective power

In recent years, scholars have devoted increased attention to the agency of small states in International Relations. However, the conventional wisdom remains that while not completely powerful, small states are unlikely to achieve much of significance when faced by great power opposition. This argument, however, implicitly rests on resource-based and compulsory understandings of power. This article explores the implicit connections between the concept of "small state" and diverse concepts of power, asking how we should understand these states' attempts to gain influence and achieve their international political objectives. By connecting the study of small states with additional understandings of power, the article elaborates the broader avenues for influence that are open to many states but are particularly relevant for small states. The article argues that small states' power can be best understood as originating in three categories: “derivative,” collective, and particular-intrinsic. Derivative power, coined by Michael Handel, relies upon the relationship with a great power. Collective power involves building coalitions of supportive states, often through institutions. Particular-intrinsic power relies on the assets of the small state trying to do the influencing. Small states specialize in the bases and means of these types of power, which may have unconventional compulsory, institutional, structural, and productive aspects.

Differential regulation of FGF-2 in neurons and reactive astrocytes of axotomized rat hypoglossal nucleus. A possible therapeutic target for neuroprotection in peripheral nerve pathology

Despite the favorable treatment of cranial nerve neuropathology in adulthood, some cases are resistant to therapy leading to permanent functional impairments In many cases, suitable treatment is problematic as the therapeutic target remains unknown Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF, FGF 2) is involved in neuronal maintenance and wound repair following nervous system lesions It is one of few neurotrophic molecules acting in autocrine, paracrine and intracrine fashions depending upon specific circumstances Peripheral cranial somatic motor neurons, i e hypoglossal (XII) neurons, may offer a unique opportunity to study cellular FGF 2 mechanisms as the molecule is present in the cytoplasm of neurons and in the nuclei of astrocytes of the central nervous system FGF-2 may trigger differential actions during development, maintenance and lesion of XII neurons because axotomy of those cells leads to cell death during neonatal ages, but not in adult life Moreover, the modulatory effects of astroglial FGF 2 and the Ca+2 binding protein S100 beta have been postulated in paracrine mechanisms after neuronal lesions In our study, adult Wistar rats received a unilateral crush or transection (with amputation of stumps) of XII nerve, and were sacrificed after 72 h or 11 days Brains were processed for immunohistochemical localization of neurofilaments (NF), with or without counterstaining for Nissl substance, ghat fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, as a marker of astrocytes), S100 beta and FGF-2 The number of Nissl positive neurons of axotomized XII nucleus did not differ from controls The NF immunoreactivity increased in the perikarya and decreased in the neuropil of axotomized XII neurons 11 days after nerve crush or transection An astrocytic reaction was seen in the ipsilateral XII nucleus of the crushed or transected animals 72 h and 11 days after the surgery The nerve lesions did not change the number of FGF-2 neurons in the ipsilateral XII nucleus, however, the nerve transection increased the number of FGF-2 ghat profiles by 72 h and 11 days Microdensitometric image analysis revealed a short lasting decrease in the intensity of FGF 2 immunoreactivity in axotomized XII neurons by 72 h after nerve crush or transection and also an elevation of FGF-2 in the ipsilateral of ghat nuclei by 72h and 11 days after the two lesions S100 beta decreased in astrocytes of 11-day transected XII nucleus The two-color immunoperoxidase for the simultaneous detection of the GFAP/FGF-2 indicated FGF-2 upregulation in the nuclei of reactive astrocytes of the lesioned XII nucleus Astroglial FGF-2 may exert paracrine trophic actions in mature axotomized XII neurons and might represent a therapeutic target for neuroprotection in peripheral nerve pathology (C) 2009 Elsevier GmbH All rights reserved

A Metal-Repressed Promoter From Gram-Positive Bacillus subtilis Is Highly Active and Metal-Induced in Gram-Negative Cupriavidus metallidurans

A synthetic version of the metal-regulated gene A (mrgA) promoter from Bacillus subtilis, which in this Gram-positive bacterium is negatively regulated by manganese, iron, cobalt, or copper turned out to promote high level of basal gene expression that is further enhanced by Co(II), Cd(II), Mn(II), Zn(II), Cu(II), or Ni(II), when cloned in the Gram-negative bacterium Cupriavidus metallidurans. Promoter activity was monitored by expression of the reporter gene coding for the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), and cellular intensity fluorescence was quantified by flow cytometry. Expression levels in C. metallidurans driven by the heterologous promoter, here called pan, ranged from 20- to 53-fold the expression level driven by the Escherichia coli lac promoter (which is constitutively expressed in C. metallidurans), whether in the absence or presence of metal ions, respectively. The pan promoter did also function in E. coli in a constitutive pattern, regardless of the presence of Mn(II) or Fe(II). In conclusion, the pan promoter proved to be a powerful tool to express heterologous proteins in Gram-negative bacteria, especially in C. metallidurans grown upon high levels of toxic metals, with potential applications in bioremediation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010; 107: 469-477. (C) 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

PAIN IN FIBROMYALGIA AND DISCRIMINATIVE POWER OF THE INSTRUMENTS: VISUAL ANALOG SCALE, DOLORIMETRY AND THE MCGILL PAIN QUESTIONNAIRE

Objective: The aim of this study was to verify the discriminative power of the most widely used pain assessment instruments. Methods: The sample consisted of 279 subjects divided into Fibromyalgia Group (FM- 205 patients with fibromyalgia) and Control Group (CG-74 healthy subjects), mean age 49.29 +/- 10.76 years. Only 9 subjects were male, 6 in FM and 3 in CG. FM were outpatients from the Rheumatology Clinic of the University of Sao Paulo - Hospital das Clinicas (HCFMUSP); the CG included people accompanying patients and hospital staff with similar socio-demographic characteristics. Three instruments were used to assess pain: the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), and the Dolorimetry, to measure pain threshold on tender points (generating the TP index). In order to assess the discriminative power of the instruments, the measurements obtained were submitted to descriptive analysis and inferential analysis using ROC Curve - sensibility (S), specificity (S I) and area under the curve (AUC) - and Contingence tables with Chi-square Test and odds ratio. Significance level was 0.05. Results: Higher sensibility, specificity and area under the curve was obtained by VAS (80%, 80% and 0.864, respectively), followed by Dolorimetry (S 77%, S177% and AUC 0.851), McGill Sensory (S 72%, S167% and AUC 0.765) and McGill Affective (S 69%, S1 67% and AUC 0.753). Conclusions: VAS presented the higher sensibility, specificity and AUC, showing the greatest discriminative power among the instruments. However, these values are considerably similar to those of Dolorimetry.

Conformational Properties of Angiotensin II and Its Active and Inactive TOAC-Labeled Analogs in the Presence of Micelles. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance, Fluorescence, and Circular Dichroism Studies

The interaction between angiotensin II (AII, DRVYIHPF) and its analogs carrying 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl-4-amino-4-carboxylic acid (TOAC) and detergents-negatively charged sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and zwitterionic N-hexadecyl-N,N-dimethyl-3-ammonio-1-propanesulfonate (HPS)-was examined by means of EPR, CD, and fluorescence. EPR spectra of partially active TOAC(1)-AII and inactive TOAC(3)-AII in aqueous solution indicated fast tumbling, the freedom of motion being greater at the N-terminus. Line broadening occurred upon interaction with micelles. Below SDS critical micelle concentration, broader lines indicated complex formation with tighter molecular packing than in micelles. Small changes in hyperfine splittings evinced TOAC location at the micelle-water interface. The interaction with anionic micelles was more effective than with zwitterionic micelles. Peptide-micelle interaction caused fluorescence increase. The TOAC-promoted intramolecular fluorescence quenching was more, pronounced for TOAC(3)-AII because of the proximity between the nitroxide and Tyr(4). CD spectra showed that although both AII and TOAC(1)-AII presented flexible conformations in water, TOAC(3)-AII displayed conformational restriction because of the TOAC-imposed bend (Schreier et al., Biopolymers 2004, 74, 389). In HPS, conformational changes were observed for the labeled peptides at neutral and basic pH. In SDS, all peptides underwent pH-dependent conformational changes. Although the spectra suggested similar folds for All and TOAC(1)-AII, different conformations were acquired by TOAC(3)-AII. The membrane environment has been hypothesized to shift conformational equilibria so as to stabilize the receptor-bound conformation of ligands. The fact that TOAC(3)-AII is unable to acquire conformations similar to those of native AII and partially active TOAC(1)-AII is probably the explanation for its lack of biological activity. (C) 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers (Pept Sci) 92: 525-537, 2009.

Effects of a high fat diet on liver mitochondria: increased ATP-sensitive K(+) channel activity and reactive oxygen species generation

High fat diets are extensively associated with health complications within the spectrum of the metabolic syndrome. Some of the most prevalent of these pathologies, often observed early in the development of high-fat dietary complications, are non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases. Mitochondrial bioenergetics and redox state changes are also widely associated with alterations within the metabolic syndrome. We investigated the mitochondrial effects of a high fat diet leading to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in mice. We found that the diet does not substantially alter respiratory rates, ADP/O ratios or membrane potentials of isolated liver mitochondria. However, H(2)O(2) release using different substrates and ATP-sensitive K(+) transport activities are increased in mitochondria from animals on high fat diets. The increase in H(2)O(2) release rates was observed with different respiratory substrates and was not altered by modulators of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive K(+) channels, indicating it was not related to an observed increase in K(+) transport. Altogether, we demonstrate that mitochondria from animals with diet-induced steatosis do not present significant bioenergetic changes, but display altered ion transport and increased oxidant generation. This is the first evidence, to our knowledge, that ATP-sensitive K(+) transport in mitochondria can be modulated by diet.

Prosodic Morphology : Gender in Arabic Perfect Active and Passive 3rd Person Singular Verbs

Prosodic /template Morphology, that "draws heavily on the theoretical apparatus and formalisms of the generative phonology model known as autosegmental phonology" (Katamba, F. 1993: 154), is the best analysis that can handle Arabic morphology. Verbs in Arabic are represented on three independent tiers: root tier, the skeletal tier and the vocalic melody tier (Katamba, F. 1993). Vowel morphemes, which are represented by diacritics, are inserted within the consonant morphemes, which are represented by primary symbols, to form words. The morpheme tier hypothesis paves the way to understand the nonconcatenative Arabic morphology. This paper analyzes gender in perfect active and passive 3rd person singular verbs on the basis of PM. The focus of the analysis shall be drawn heavily on the most common Arabic verbs; triconsonantal verbs, with brief introduction of the less common verbs; quadriconsonantal perfect active and passive masculine and feminine 3rd person singular verbs. I shall, too, cast the light on some vowel changes that some verbs undergo when voice changes.