Cálculo de pilas con aparatos de apoyo tipo POT y tablero con punto fijo

In recent years a great number of high speed railway bridges have been constructed within the Spanish borders. Due to the demanding high speed trains route's geometrical requirements, bridges frequently show remarkable lengths. This fact is the main reason why railway bridges are overall longer than roadway bridges. In the same line, it is also worth highlighting the importance of high speed trains braking forces compared to vehicles. While vehicles braking forces can be tackled easily, the railway braking forces demand the existence of a fixed-point. It is generally located at abutments where the no-displacements requirement can be more easily achieved. In some other cases the fixed-point is placed in one of the interior columns. As a consequence of these bridges' length and the need of a fixed-point, temperature, creep and shrinkage strains lead to fairly significant deck displacements, which become greater with the distance to the fixed-point. These displacements need to be accommodated by the piers and bearings deformation. Regular elastomeric bearings are not able to allow such displacements and therefore are not suitable for this task. For this reason, the use of sliding PTFE POT bearings has been an extensive practice mainly because they permit sliding with low friction. This is not the only reason of the extensive use of these bearings to high-speed railways bridges. The value of the vertical loads at each bent is significantly higher than in roadway bridges. This is so mainly because the live loads due to trains traffic are much greater than vehicles. Thus, gravel rails foundation represents a non-negligible permanent load at all. All this together increases the value of vertical loads to be withstood. This high vertical load demand discards the use of conventional bearings for excessive compressions. The PTFE POT bearings' higher technology allows to accommodate this level of compression thanks to their design. The previously explained high-speed railway bridge configuration leads to a key fact regarding longitudinal horizontal loads (such as breaking forces) which is the transmission of these loads entirely to the fixed-point alone. Piers do not receive these longitudinal horizontal loads since PTFE POT bearings displayed are longitudinally free-sliding. This means that longitudinal horizontal actions on top of piers will not be forces but imposed displacements. This feature leads to the need to approach these piers design in a different manner that when piers are elastically linked to superstructure, which is the case of elastomeric bearings. In response to the previous, the main goal of this Thesis is to present a Design Method for columns displaying either longitudinally fixed POT bearings or longitudinally free PTFE POT bearings within bridges with fixed-point deck configuration, applicable to railway and road vehicles bridges. The method was developed with the intention to account for all major parameters that play a role in these columns behavior. The long process that has finally led to the method's formulation is rooted in the understanding of these column's behavior. All the assumptions made to elaborate the formulations contained in this method have been made in benefit of conservatives results. The singularity of the analysis of columns with this configuration is due to a combination of different aspects. One of the first steps of this work was to study they of these design aspects and understand the role each plays in the column's response. Among these aspects, special attention was dedicated to the column's own creep due to permanent actions such us rheological deck displacements, and also to the longitudinally guided PTFE POT bearings implications in the design of the column. The result of this study is the Design Method presented in this Thesis, that allows to work out a compliant vertical reinforcement distribution along the column. The design of horizontal reinforcement due to shear forces is not addressed in this Thesis. The method's formulations are meant to be applicable to the greatest number of cases, leaving to the engineer judgement many of the different parameters values. In this regard, this method is a helpful tool for a wide range of cases. The widespread use of European standards in the more recent years, in particular the so-called Eurocodes, has been one of the reasons why this Thesis has been developed in accordance with Eurocodes. Same trend has been followed for the bearings design implications, which are covered by the rather recent European code EN-1337. One of the most relevant aspects that this work has taken from the Eurocodes is the non-linear calculations security format. The biaxial bending simplified approach that shows the Design Method presented in this work also lies on Eurocodes recommendations. The columns under analysis are governed by a set of dimensionless parameters that are presented in this work. The identification of these parameters is a helpful for design purposes for two columns with identical dimensionless parameters may be designed together. The first group of these parameters have to do with the cross-sectional behavior, represented in the bending-curvature diagrams. A second group of parameters define the columns response. Thanks to this identification of the governing dimensionless parameters, it has been possible what has been named as Dimensionless Design Curves, which basically allows to obtain in a reduced time a preliminary vertical reinforcement column distribution. These curves are of little use nowadays, firstly because each family of curves refer to specific values of many different parameters and secondly because the use of computers allows for extremely quick and accurate calculations.

Obtención de la tensión de fractura del vidrio en ensayos de anillos concéntricos utilizando MEF

Las discrepancias entre las funciones de distribución acumulada de la tensión de fractura del vidrio es una de las dificultades encontradas para incorporar la filosofía probabilista para el diseño del vidrio. Se utilizan tres ensayos para la caracterización de la tensión de fractura del vidrio: flexión de viga en cuatro puntos, ensayo con dobles anillos concéntricos con pequeña superficie y con gran superficie. La comparación directa de las funciones de distribución presenta discrepancias claras relacionadas con el estado de tensión -uni o biaxial- y con el comportamiento de la estructura -grandes o pequeños desplazamientos. Con un procedimiento iterativo, se ajustan los resultados de los ensayos (carga - presión- probabilidad de rotura) a través de un modelo de elementos finitos que permite estimar las aéreas efectivas de cada espécimen. Los parámetros finales para la tensión de rotura mejoran la estimación de la probabilidad de la carga de rotura de cada probeta con errores inferiores al 10%.

Multiscale modeling of the plastic behaviour in single crystal tungsten: from atomistic to crystal plasticity simulations

En una planta de fusión, los materiales en contacto con el plasma así como los materiales de primera pared experimentan condiciones particularmente hostiles al estar expuestos a altos flujos de partículas, neutrones y grandes cargas térmicas. Como consecuencia de estas diferentes y complejas condiciones de trabajo, el estudio, desarrollo y diseño de estos materiales es uno de los más importantes retos que ha surgido en los últimos años para la comunidad científica en el campo de los materiales y la energía. Debido a su baja tasa de erosión, alta resistencia al sputtering, alta conductividad térmica, muy alto punto de fusión y baja retención de tritio, el tungsteno (wolframio) es un importante candidato como material de primera pared y como posible material estructural avanzado en fusión por confinamiento magnético e inercial. Sin embargo, el tiempo de vida del tungsteno viene controlado por diversos factores como son su respuesta termo-mecánica en la superficie, la posibilidad de fusión y el fallo por acumulación de helio. Es por ello que el tiempo de vida limitado por la respuesta mecánica del tungsteno (W), y en particular su fragilidad, sean dos importantes aspectos que tienes que ser investigados. El comportamiento plástico en materiales refractarios con estructura cristalina cúbica centrada en las caras (bcc) como el tungsteno está gobernado por las dislocaciones de tipo tornillo a escala atómica y por conjuntos e interacciones de dislocaciones a escalas más grandes. El modelado de este complejo comportamiento requiere la aplicación de métodos capaces de resolver de forma rigurosa cada una de las escalas. El trabajo que se presenta en esta tesis propone un modelado multiescala que es capaz de dar respuestas ingenieriles a las solicitudes técnicas del tungsteno, y que a su vez está apoyado por la rigurosa física subyacente a extensas simulaciones atomísticas. En primer lugar, las propiedades estáticas y dinámicas de las dislocaciones de tipo tornillo en cinco potenciales interatómicos de tungsteno son comparadas, determinando cuáles de ellos garantizan una mayor fidelidad física y eficiencia computacional. Las grandes tasas de deformación asociadas a las técnicas de dinámica molecular hacen que las funciones de movilidad de las dislocaciones obtenidas no puedan ser utilizadas en los siguientes pasos del modelado multiescala. En este trabajo, proponemos dos métodos alternativos para obtener las funciones de movilidad de las dislocaciones: un modelo Monte Cario cinético y expresiones analíticas. El conjunto de parámetros necesarios para formular el modelo de Monte Cario cinético y la ley de movilidad analítica son calculados atomísticamente. Estos parámetros incluyen, pero no se limitan a: la determinación de las entalpias y energías de formación de las parejas de escalones que forman las dislocaciones, la parametrización de los efectos de no Schmid característicos en materiales bcc,etc. Conociendo la ley de movilidad de las dislocaciones en función del esfuerzo aplicado y la temperatura, se introduce esta relación como ecuación de flujo dentro de un modelo de plasticidad cristalina. La predicción del modelo sobre la dependencia del límite de fluencia con la temperatura es validada experimentalmente con ensayos uniaxiales en tungsteno monocristalino. A continuación, se calcula el límite de fluencia al aplicar ensayos uniaxiales de tensión para un conjunto de orientaciones cristalográticas dentro del triángulo estándar variando la tasa de deformación y la temperatura de los ensayos. Finalmente, y con el objetivo de ser capaces de predecir una respuesta más dúctil del tungsteno para una variedad de estados de carga, se realizan ensayos biaxiales de tensión sobre algunas de las orientaciones cristalográficas ya estudiadas en función de la temperatura.-------------------------------------------------------------------------ABSTRACT ----------------------------------------------------------Tungsten and tungsten alloys are being considered as leading candidates for structural and functional materials in future fusion energy devices. The most attractive properties of tungsten for the design of magnetic and inertial fusion energy reactors are its high melting point, high thermal conductivity, low sputtering yield and low longterm disposal radioactive footprint. However, tungsten also presents a very low fracture toughness, mostly associated with inter-granular failure and bulk plasticity, that limits its applications. As a result of these various and complex conditions of work, the study, development and design of these materials is one of the most important challenges that have emerged in recent years to the scientific community in the field of materials for energy applications. The plastic behavior of body-centered cubic (bcc) refractory metals like tungsten is governed by the kink-pair mediated thermally activated motion of h¿ (\1 11)i screw dislocations on the atomistic scale and by ensembles and interactions of dislocations at larger scales. Modeling this complex behavior requires the application of methods capable of resolving rigorously each relevant scale. The work presented in this thesis proposes a multiscale model approach that gives engineering-level responses to the technical specifications required for the use of tungsten in fusion energy reactors, and it is also supported by the rigorous underlying physics of extensive atomistic simulations. First, the static and dynamic properties of screw dislocations in five interatomic potentials for tungsten are compared, determining which of these ensure greater physical fidelity and computational efficiency. The large strain rates associated with molecular dynamics techniques make the dislocation mobility functions obtained not suitable to be used in the next steps of the multiscale model. Therefore, it is necessary to employ mobility laws obtained from a different method. In this work, we suggest two alternative methods to get the dislocation mobility functions: a kinetic Monte Carlo model and analytical expressions. The set of parameters needed to formulate the kinetic Monte Carlo model and the analytical mobility law are calculated atomistically. These parameters include, but are not limited to: enthalpy and energy barriers of kink-pairs as a function of the stress, width of the kink-pairs, non-Schmid effects ( both twinning-antitwinning asymmetry and non-glide stresses), etc. The function relating dislocation velocity with applied stress and temperature is used as the main source of constitutive information into a dislocation-based crystal plasticity framework. We validate the dependence of the yield strength with the temperature predicted by the model against existing experimental data of tensile tests in singlecrystal tungsten, with excellent agreement between the simulations and the measured data. We then extend the model to a number of crystallographic orientations uniformly distributed in the standard triangle and study the effects of temperature and strain rate. Finally, we perform biaxial tensile tests and provide the yield surface as a function of the temperature for some of the crystallographic orientations explored in the uniaxial tensile tests.

Contribución del tablero y de la subestructura frente al pandeo global de pilas esbeltas de hormigón armado : determinación simplificada de una "coacción equivalente"

Las pilas de los puentes son elementos habitualmente verticales que, generalmente, se encuentran sometidos a un estado de flexión compuesta. Su altura significativa en muchas ocasiones y la gran resistencia de los materiales constituyentes de estos elementos – hormigón y acero – hace que se encuentren pilas de cierta esbeltez en la que los problemas de inestabilidad asociados al cálculo en segundo orden debido a la no linealidad geométrica deben ser considerados. Además, la mayoría de las pilas de nuestros puentes y viaductos están hechas de hormigón armado por lo que se debe considerar la fisuración del hormigón en las zonas en que esté traccionado. Es decir, el estudio del pandeo de pilas esbeltas de puentes requiere también la consideración de un cálculo en segundo orden mecánico, y no solo geométrico. Por otra parte, una pila de un viaducto no es un elemento que pueda considerarse como aislado; al contrario, su conexión con el tablero hace que aparezca una interacción entre la propia pila y aquél que, en cierta medida, supone una cierta coacción al movimiento de la propia cabeza de pila. Esto hace que el estudio de la inestabilidad de una pila esbelta de un puente no puede ser resuelto con la “teoría del pandeo de la pieza aislada”. Se plantea, entonces, la cuestión de intentar definir un procedimiento que permita abordar el problema complicado del pandeo de pilas esbeltas de puentes pero empleando herramientas de cálculo no tan complejas como las que resuelven “el pandeo global de una estructura multibarra, teniendo en cuenta todas las no linealidades, incluidas las de las coacciones”. Es decir, se trata de encontrar un procedimiento, que resulta ser iterativo, que resuelva el problema planteado de forma aproximada, pero suficientemente ajustada al resultado real, pero empleando programas “convencionales” de cálculo que sean capaces de : - por una parte, en la estructura completa: o calcular en régimen elástico lineal una estructura plana o espacial multibarra compleja; - por otra, en un modelo de una sola barra aislada: o considerar las no linealidades geométricas y mecánicas a nivel tensodeformacional, o considerar la no linealidad producida por la fisuración del hormigón, o considerar una coacción “elástica” en el extremo de la pieza. El objeto de este trabajo es precisamente la definición de ese procedimiento iterativo aproximado, la justificación de su validez, mediante su aplicación a diversos casos paramétricos, y la presentación de sus condicionantes y limitaciones. Además, para conseguir estos objetivos se han elaborado unos ábacos de nueva creación que permiten estimar la reducción de rigidez que supone la fisuración del hormigón en secciones huecas monocajón de hormigón armado. También se han creado unos novedosos diagramas de interacción axil-flector válidos para este tipo de secciones en flexión biaxial. Por último, hay que reseñar que otro de los objetivos de este trabajo – que, además, le da título - era cuantificar el valor de la coacción que existe en la cabeza de una pila debido a que el tablero transmite las cargas de una pila al resto de los integrantes de la subestructura y ésta, por tanto, colabora a reducir los movimientos de la cabeza de pila en cuestión. Es decir, la cabeza de una pila no está exenta lo cual mejora su comportamiento frente al pandeo. El régimen de trabajo de esta coacción es claramente no lineal, ya que la rigidez de las pilas depende de su grado de fisuración. Además, también influye cómo las afecta la no linealidad geométrica que, para la misma carga, aumenta la flexión de segundo orden de cada pila. En este documento se define cuánto vale esta coacción, cómo hay que calcularla y se comprueba su ajuste a los resultados obtenidos en el l modelo no lineal completo. The piers of the bridges are vertical elements where axial loads and bending moments are to be considered. They are often high and also the strength of the materials they are made of (concrete and steel) is also high. This means that slender piers are very common and, so, the instabilities produced by the second order effects due to the geometrical non linear effects are to be considered. In addition to this, the piers are usually made of reinforced concrete and, so, the effects of the cracking of the concrete should also be evaluated. That is, the analysis of the instabilities of te piers of a bridge should consider both the mechanical and the geometrical non linearities. Additionally, the pier of a bridge is not a single element, but just the opposite; the connection of the pier to the deck of the bridge means that the movements of the top of the pier are reduced compared to the situation of having a free end at the top of the pier. The connection between the pier and the deck is the reason why the instability of the pier cannot be analysed using “the buckling of a compressed single element method”. So, the question of defining an approximate method for analysing the buckling of the slender piers of a bridge but using a software less complex than what it is needed for analysing the “ global buckling of a multibeam structure considering all t”, is arisen. Then, the goal should be trying to find a procedure for analysing the said complex problem of the buckling of the slender piers of a bridge using a simplified method. This method could be an iterative (step by step) procedure, being accurate enough, using “normal” software having the following capabilities: - Related to the calculation of the global structure o Ability for calculating a multibesam strucutre using elastic analysis. - Related to the calculation of a single beam strcuture:: o Ability for taking into account the geometrical and mechanical () non linearities o Ability for taking into account the cracking of the concrete. o Ability for using partial stiff constraints (elastic springs) at the end of the elements One of the objectives of this document is just defining this simplified methodology, justifying the accuracy of the proposed procedure by using it on some different bridges and presenting the exclusions and limitations of the propose method. In addition to this, some new charts have been created for calculating the reduction of the stiffness of hollow cross sections made of reinforced concrete. Also, new charts for calculating the reinforcing of hollow cross sections under biaxial bending moments are also included in the document. Finally, it is to be said that another aim of the document – as it is stated on the title on the document – is defining the value of the constraint on the top of the pier because of the connection of the pier to the deck .. and to the other piers. That is, the top of the pier is not a free end of a beam and so the buckling resistance of the pier is significantly improved. This constraint is a non-elastic constraint because the stiffness of each pier depends on the level of cracking. Additionally, the geometrical non linearity is to be considered as there is an amplification of the bending moments due to the increasing of the movements of the top of the pier. This document is defining how this constraints is to be calculated; also the accuracy of the calculations is evaluated comparing the final results with the results of the complete non linear calculations

The degree of nonlinearity and anisotropy of blood vessel elasticity

Blood vessel elasticity is important to physiology and clinical problems involving surgery, angioplasty, tissue remodeling, and tissue engineering. Nonlinearity in blood vessel elasticity in vivo is important to the formation of solitons in arterial pulse waves. It is well known that the stress–strain relationship of the blood vessel is nonlinear in general, but a controversy exists on how nonlinear it is in the physiological range. Another controversy is whether the vessel wall is biaxially isotropic. New data on canine aorta were obtained from a biaxial testing machine over a large range of finite strains referred to the zero-stress state. A new pseudo strain energy function is used to examine these questions critically. The stress–strain relationship derived from this function represents the sum of a linear stress–strain relationship and a definitely nonlinear relationship. This relationship fits the experimental data very well. With this strain energy function, we can define a parameter called the degree of nonlinearity, which represents the fraction of the nonlinear strain energy in the total strain energy per unit volume. We found that for the canine aorta, the degree of nonlinearity varies from 5% to 30%, depending on the magnitude of the strains in the physiological range. In the case of canine pulmonary artery in the arch region, Debes and Fung [Debes, J. C. & Fung, Y. C.(1995) Am. J. Physiol. 269, H433–H442] have shown that the linear regime of the stress–strain relationship extends from the zero-stress state to the homeostatic state and beyond. Both vessels, however, are anisotropic in both the linear and nonlinear regimes.

Efeito da adição de amido resistente de milho e enzimas sobre as propriedades da massa de pão e as propriedades físicas do pão de forma.

O amido resistente de milho (ARM) não é digerido em humanos fornecendo benefícios para a saúde tais como redução do colesterol, do índice glicêmico e fermentação no cólon. Porém, a substituição parcial de farinha de trigo (FT) por ARM em massa de pão resulta na diluição do glúten prejudicando a qualidade do produto. Massa de pão foi produzida com 12,5 g/100g de ARM e os efeitos das enzimas glicose-oxidase (Gox), tranglutaminase (TG) e xilanase (HE) na massa foram estudados. Massa produzida sem ARM e sem enzimas foi considerada padrão e massa produzida com ARM e sem enzimas foi considerada controle para comparação. Uma metodologia foi desenvolvida para medir o torque durante o amassamento em grande escala, utilizando um reômetro dinâmico adaptado. As propriedades reológicas foram avaliadas nos testes de medidas descritivas de textura, adesividade Chen-Hoseney, extensão uniaxial Kieffer, extensão biaxial e testes oscilatórios em reômetro. Pão produzido de acordo com as formulações padrão, controle e ótima foi avaliado com relação ao volume específico (VEP), firmeza do miolo, cor e análise sensorial para o atributo preferência. As três enzimas testadas influenciaram positivamente o torque máximo atingido durante o amassamento que variou entre (8,36 e 9,38) N m. Gox e TG apresentaram efeito positivo na altura máxima desenvolvida pela massa medida em reofermentógrafo enquanto que o efeito da HE foi negativo. Uma formulação com ARM e enzimas apresentou desempenho de panificação similar a massa padrão (altura máxima ajustada igual a (45,5 ± 3,9) mm), correspondente a adição de (4, 2,5 e 0,5) mg/100g de TG, Gox e HE respectivamente (ótima). A formulação ótima apresentou adesividade, trabalho de adesão, coesividade, dureza, resiliência, resistência à extensão e extensibilidade similares a massa padrão e diferentes da massa controle. As enzimas aumentaram o índice de strain hardening reduzido pela adição de ARM. Para o pão de forma, o VEP variou entre (3,16 e 3,64) cm3/g (diferença não significativa) e o pão produzido com a formulação ótima foi o mais escolhido como preferido. Durante o armazenamento por até 7 dias, o ARM diminuiu a taxa de envelhecimento do pão enquanto que as enzimas apresentaram efeito oposto. Em geral, a substituição parcial de FT por ARM reduziu a elasticidade da massa diminuindo a qualidade do pão enquanto que as enzimas minimizaram esse efeito.

Avaliação do processamento por atrito linear em chapas da liga de titânio Ti-6Al-4V.

Esta tese tem por objetivo a aplicação do processamento por atrito linear na liga de titânio Ti-6Al-4V. Derivado da solda por atrito linear, é um processo recente desenvolvido na década de 90 para união de alumínio. Sua aplicação em outros tipos de materiais como aços e ligas de alto desempenho, em especial o titânio, tem interessado a industria. A metodologia utilizada nesta tese para avaliar o processamento por atrito linear, consistiu na execução de ensaios mecânicos de tração em condições mistas em chapas da liga de titânio Ti-6Al-4V. A máquina utilizada para o processamento das chapas foi um centro de usinagem CNC convencional, adaptado com dispositivos especiais. Além dos ensaios de tração em condições mistas, foram executadas medições de microdurezas nas regiões atingidas pelo processo, avaliação das microestruturas resultantes e medições de tensão residual para uma caracterização mais ampla do processo. As microestruturas na região processada são caracterizadas por uma estrutura totalmente transformada. As temperaturas de pico na região processada excederam a temperatura -transus durante o processamento e a transformação da fase + ocorreu durante a fase de resfriamento. A transformação da fase para resultou na formação de agulhas de fase nos contornos e pelo interior dos grãos da fase . Pequenas regiões com estrutura equiaxial de grãos ( globular) foram observados na zona de processamento. A abordagem dos resultados quantitativos foi feita de forma estatística, visando identificar os parâmetros de maior interação com os resultados observados. Foi identificado nesta tese que a rotação da ferramenta apresentou a maior influência nos resultados de tensão residual, microdureza e tensão de escoamento. Uma importante contribuição à modelagem da tensão de escoamento para materiais anisotrópicos é proposta, baseado em um critério de escoamento ortotrópico. Equações complementares baseadas nos testes mistos de tração e cisalhamento são propostas para modificar o modelo ortotrópico. O intuito deste modelo é indicar em que condições o material tem seu regime de escoamento atingido, podendo servir de base para simulações práticas de peças em condições similares.

Forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence based on Differential Interferometry (Part III)

This work presents a forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence, which is based on deformation data obtained by Differential Interferometry (DInSAR). The proposed test site is La Union village (Murcia, SE Spain) where subsidence was triggered in an industrial area due to the collapse of abandoned underground mining labours occurred in 1998. In the first part of this work the study area was introduced, describing the spatial and temporal evolution of ground subsidence, through the elaboration of a cracks map on the buildings located within the affected area. In the second part, the evolution of the most significant cracks found in the most damaged buildings was monitored using biaxial extensometric units and inclinometers. This article describes the work performed in the third part, where DInSAR processing of satellite radar data, available between 1998 and 2008, has permitted to determine the spatial and temporal evolution of the deformation of all the buildings of the study area in a period when no continuous in situ instrumental data is available. Additionally, the comparison of these results with the forensic data gathered in the 2005–2008 period, reveal that there is a coincidence between damaged buildings, buildings where extensometers register significant movements of cracks, and buildings deformation estimated from radar data. As a result, it has been demonstrated that the integration of DInSAR data into forensic analysis methodologies contributes to improve significantly the assessment of the damages of buildings affected by mining subsidence.

Fadiga em elementos tubulares de matriz epoxídica reforçada com fibras de carbono sujeitos a solicitações de torção e flexão

Os materiais compósitos são materiais em expansão. Revolucionaram a indústria aeronáutica e actualmente difundem-se nos mais variados nichos industriais, mesmo nas aplicações mais comuns. Têm uma grande aplicação em elementos estruturais, sendo submetidos a estados de tensão e deformação multiaxiais. Os elementos tubulares de matriz epoxídica reforçada com fibras de carbono são exemplos típicos de componentes. No entanto, devido ao aparecimento relativamente recente destes materiais, os modelos de fadiga utilizados nos materiais comuns mostraram-se pouco realistas. Surgiu assim a necessidade de adaptar e elaborar novos modelos de fadiga, com resultados mais satisfatórios na previsão da vida dos componentes, recorrendo a ensaios laboratoriais. No presente estudo experimental, recorrendo a um sistema adequado de amarras, foram realizados ensaios de torção e de flexão pura, quer estáticos, quer dinâmicos, numa máquina servo-hidráulica convencional. Nos ensaios de fadiga foram consideradas duas razões de tensões (R=0,05 e R=0,3). Foram também realizados ensaios de fadiga com carregamentos de flexão-torção em fase sob amplitude de tensão constante, com as mesmas razões de tensões, considerando o momento flector igual ao momento torsor (B=T). Foi avaliado o efeito da tensão média, recorrendo aos critérios de Gerber e Goodman, os quais se apresentaram satisfatórios, tendo em conta o número reduzido de estudos efectuados. Já nos ensaios biaxiais, o critério de Tsai–Hill mostrou-se erróneo perante os resultados experimentais. No entanto, após ter sido aplicado um ajustamento, os resultados melhoraram. Foi também estudado o comportamento elastoplástico dos corpos de prova em todos os ensaios.

The behaviour of granular material in pure shear, direct shear and simple shear

In biaxial compression tests, the stress calculations based on boundary information underestimate the principal stresses leading to a significant overestimation of the shear strength. In direct shear tests, the shear strain becomes highly concentrated in the mid-plane of the sample during the test. Although the stress distribution within the specimen is heterogeneous, the evolution of the stress ratio inside the shear band is similar to that inferred from the boundary force calculations. It is also demonstrated that the dilatancy in the shear band significantly exceeds that implied from the boundary displacements. In simple shear tests, the stresses acting on the wall boundaries do not reflect the internal state of stress but merely provide information about the average mobilised wall friction. It is demonstrated that the results are sensitive to the initial stress state defined by K0 = sh/sv. For all cases, non-coaxiality of the principal stress and strain-rate directions is examined and the corresponding flow rule is identified. Periodic cell simulations have been used to examine biaxial compression for a wide range of initial packing densities. Both constant volume and constant mean stress tests have been simulated. The characteristic behaviour at both the macroscopic and microscopic scales is determined by whether or not the system percolates (enduring connectivity is established in all directions). The transition from non-percolating to percolating systems is characterised by transitional behaviour of internal variables and corresponds to an elastic percolation threshold, which correlates well with the establishment of a mechanical coordination number of ca. 3.0. Strong correlations are found between macroscopic and internal variables at the critical state.

Formability of high strength aluminium sheet

An initial review of the subject emphasises the need for improved fuel efficiency in vehicles and the possible role of aluminium in reducing weight. The problems of formability generally in manufacture and of aluminium in particular are discussed in the light of published data. A range of thirteen commercially available sheet aluminium alloys have been compared with respect to mechanical properties as these affect forming processes and behaviour in service. Four alloys were selected for detailed comparison. The formability and strength of these were investigated in terms of underlying mechanisms of deformation as well as the microstructural characteristics of the alloys including texture, particle dispersion, grain size and composition. In overall terms, good combinations of strength and ductility are achievable with alloys of the 2xxx and 6xxx series. Some specific alloys are notably better than others. The strength of formed components is affected by paint baking in the final stages of manufacture. Generally, alloys of the 6xxx family are strengthened while 2xxx and 5xxx become weaker. Some anomalous behaviour exists, however. Work hardening of these alloys appears to show rather abrupt decreases over certain strain ranges which is probably responsible for the relatively low strains at which both diffuse and local necking occur. Using data obtained from extended range tensile tests, the strain distribution in more complex shapes can be successfully modelled using finite element methods.Sheet failure during forming occurs by abrupt shear fracture in many instances. This condition is favoured by states of biaxial tension, surface defects in the form of fine scratches and certain types of crystallographic texture. The measured limit strains of the materials can be understood on the basis of attainment of a critical shear stress for fracture.

Nanoindentation measurement of surface residual stresses in particle-reinforced metal matrix composites

The surface residual stresses in SiC particle-reinforced Al matrix composites are measured using a recently developed nanoindentation technique. The tensile biaxial residual stress in Al is found to increase with the particle concentration. The stress magnitudes are in reasonable agreement with those from numerical modeling.

Measurement of residual stress by load and depth sensing indentation with spherical indenters

A new experimental technique is presented for making measurements of biaxial residual stress using load and depth sensing indentation (nanoindentation). The technique is based on spherical indentation, which, in certain deformation regimes, can be much more sensitive to residual stress than indentation with sharp pyramidal indenters like the Berkovich. Two different methods of analysis were developed: one requiring an independent measure of the material's yield strength and the other a reference specimen in the unstressed state or other known reference condition. Experiments conducted on aluminum alloys to which controlled biaxial bending stresses were applied showed that the methods are capable of measuring the residual stress to within 10-20% of the specimen yield stress. Because the methods do not require imaging of the hardness impressions, they are potentially useful for making localized measurements of residual stress, as in thin films or small volumes, or for characterization of point-to-point spatial variations of the surface stress.

Blue-detuned optical ring trap for Bose-Einstein condensates based on conical refraction

We present a novel approach for the optical manipulation of neutral atoms in annular light structures produced by the phenomenon of conical refraction occurring in biaxial optical crystals. For a beam focused to a plane behind the crystal, the focal plane exhibits two concentric bright rings enclosing a ring of null intensity called the Poggendorff ring. We demonstrate both theoretically and experimentally that the Poggendorff dark ring of conical refraction is confined in three dimensions by regions of higher intensity. We derive the positions of the confining intensity maxima and minima and discuss the application of the Poggendorff ring for trapping ultra-cold atoms using the repulsive dipole force of blue-detuned light. We give analytical expressions for the trapping frequencies and potential depths along both the radial and the axial directions. Finally, we present realistic numerical simulations of the dynamics of a 87Rb Bose-Einstein condensate trapped inside the Poggendorff ring which are in good agreement with corresponding experimental results.

Characterizing conical refraction optical tweezers

Conical refraction occurs when a beam of light travels through an appropriately cut biaxial crystal. By focusing the conically refracted beam through a high numerical aperture microscope objective, conical refraction optical tweezers can be created, allowing for particle manipulation in both Raman spots, and in the Lloyd/Poggendorff rings. We present a thorough quantification of the trapping properties of such a beam, focusing on the trap stiffness, and how this varies with trap power and trapped particle location. We show that the lower Raman spot can be thought of as a single-beam optical gradient force trap, while radiation pressure dominates in the upper Raman spot, leading to optical levitation rather than trapping. Particles in the Lloyd/Poggendorff rings experience a lower trap stiffness than particles in the lower Raman spot, but benefit from rotational control.