Synthesis of poly(styrene-co-methyl methacrylate)-based ionomers and their Langmuir and Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) film formation

Poly(styrene-co-methyl methacrylate) (PS-PMMA) ionomers with several degrees of sulfonation were synthesized and characterized by infrared, UV-vis, and NMR spectroscopies, elemental analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Stable Langmuir films could be produced with PS-PMMA with 3 and 6 mol % of sulfonation, while PS-PMMA 8% exhibited material loss to the water subphase, probably due to its higher solubility. Surface pressure and surface potential isotherms with PS-PMMA 3% spread onto salt-containing subphases pointed to a film behavior characteristic of the polyelectrolyte effect, where charge repulsion governs the film properties. The Langmuir-Blodgett films of this ionomer were successfully transferred onto various substrates, as confirmed by UV-vis and FTIR spectroscopies. Using cycling voltammetry, we show that LB films from PS-PMMA 3% can be applied in selective sensing of dopamine, even in the presence of interferents such as ascorbic acid.

Synthesis and in vitro evaluation of potential antichagasic hydroxymethyinitrofurazone (NFOH-121): A new nitrofurazone prodrug

The synthesis of mutual prodrugs of nitrofurazone with primaquine, using specific and nonspecific spacer groups, has been previously attempted seeking selective antichagasic agents. The intermediate reaction product, hydroxymethylnitrofurazone (NFOH-121), was isolated and tested in LLC-MK2 culture cells infected with trypomastigotes forms of Trypanosoma cruzi showing higher trypanocidal activity than nitrofurazone and benznidazol in all stages. The mutagenicity tests showed that the prodrug was less toxic than the parent drug. Degradation assays were carried out in pH 1.2 and 7.4. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Eucalyptus ESTs associated with resistance to herbicide inhibitors of aromatic and branched-chain amino acid synthesis

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Synthesis, cytotoxicity and in vitro antileishmanial activity of naphthothiazoles

The leishmaniasis is a spectral disease caused by the protozoan Leishmania spp., which threatens millions of people worldwide. Current treatments exhibit high toxicity, and there is no vaccine available. The need for new lead compounds with leishmanicidal activity is urgent. Considering that many lead leishmanicidal compounds contain a quinoidal scaffold and the thiazole heterocyclic ring is found in a number of antimicrobial drugs, we proposed a hybridization approach to generate a diverse set of semi-synthetic heterocycles with antileishmanial activity. We found that almost all synthesized compounds demonstrated potent activity against promastigotes of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and reduced the survival index of Leishmania amastigotes in mammalian macrophages. Furthermore, the compounds were not cytotoxic to macrophages at fivefold higher concentrations than the EC50 for promastigotes. All molecules fulfilled Lipinski's Rule of Five, which predicts efficient orally absorption and permeation through biological membranes, the in silico pharmacokinetic profile confirmed these characteristics. The potent and selective activity of semi-synthetic naphthothiazoles against promastigotes and amastigotes reveals that the 2-amino-naphthothiazole ring may represent a scaffold for the design of compounds with leishmanicidal properties and encourage the development of drug formulation and new compounds for further studies in vivo. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons A/S.

Synthesis, crystal structures, antimicrobial, antifungal and antituberculosis activities of mixed ligand silver(I) complexes

The biological activity of some new mixed silver-phosphane-thio-ligand complexes, with 1:1:2, 1:1:1 and 1:2:1 (Ag:phospine:ligand) compositions, have been examined. Ten compounds were prepared using a series of silver(I) salts [AgX, where X = NO3, ClO4, PF6 and Br], tertiary phosphines and the ligands thi-osemicarbazide, 2-(propan-2-ylidene) hydrazinecarbothioamide, and thiazolidine-2-thione. The syntheses were carried out under ambient conditions, and the ten complexes obtained were found to be light stable. All 10 compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, FTIR, and NMR spectroscopy, whereas nine compounds were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis. The anti-proliferative activities were evaluated by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC: lg/mL) in an aqueous suspension system and they all show promising potential activity against selective strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungous and Mycrobaterium tuberculosis H37Rv. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Synthesis and characterization of alpha-nickel (II) hydroxide particles on organic-inorganic matrix and its application in a sensitive electrochemical sensor for vitamin D determination

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Synthesis and characterization of cross-linked molecularly imprinted polyacrylamide for the extraction/preconcentration of glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid from water samples

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Effects of nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor or fluoxetine treatment on depression-like state and cardiovascular changes induced by chronic variable stress in rats

Comorbidity between mood disorders and cardiovascular disease has been described extensively. However, available antidepressants can have cardiovascular side effects. Treatment with selective inhibitors of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) induces antidepressant effects, but whether the antidepressant-like effects of these drugs are followed by cardiovascular changes has not been previously investigated. Here, we tested in male rats exposed to chronic variable stress (CVS) the hypothesis that nNOS blockers are advantageous compared with conventional antidepressants in terms of cardiovascular side effects. We compared the effects of chronic treatment with the preferential nNOS inhibitor 7-nitroindazole (7-NI) with those evoked by the conventional antidepressant fluoxetine on alterations that are considered as markers of depression (immobility in the forced swimming test, FST, decreased body weight gain and increased plasma corticosterone concentration) and cardiovascular changes caused by CVS. Rats were exposed to a 14-day CVS protocol, while being concurrently treated daily with either 7-NI (30 mg/kg) or fluoxetine (10 mg/kg). Fluoxetine and 7-NI prevented the increase in immobility in the FST induced by CVS and reduced plasma corticosterone concentration in stressed rats. Both these treatments also prevented the CVS-evoked reduction of the depressor response to vasodilator agents and baroreflex changes. Fluoxetine and 7-NI-induced cardiovascular changes independent of stress exposure, including cardiac autonomic imbalance, increased intrinsic heart rate and vascular sympathetic modulation, a reduction of the pressor response to vasoconstrictor agents, and impairment of baroreflex activity. Altogether, these findings provide evidence that fluoxetine and 7-NI have similar effects on the depression-like state induced by CVS and on cardiovascular function.

Design and synthesis of novel non peptidomimtic beta-secretase inhibitors in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The aspartic protease BACE1 (β-amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme, β-secretase) is recognized as one of the most promising targets in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The accumulation of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) in the brain is a major factor in the pathogenesis of AD. Aβ is formed by initial cleavage of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β-secretase, therefore BACE1 inhibition represents one of the therapeutic approaches to control progression of AD, by preventing the abnormal generation of Aβ. For this reason, in the last decade, many research efforts have focused at the identification of new BACE1 inhibitors as drug candidates. Generally, BACE1 inhibitors are grouped into two families: substrate-based inhibitors, designed as peptidomimetic inhibitors, and non-peptidomimetic ones. The research on non-peptidomimetic small molecules BACE1 inhibitors remains the most interesting approach, since these compounds hold an improved bioavailability after systemic administration, due to a good blood-brain barrier permeability in comparison to peptidomimetic inhibitors. Very recently, our research group discovered a new promising lead compound for the treatment of AD, named lipocrine, a hybrid derivative between lipoic acid and the AChE inhibitor (AChEI) tacrine, characterized by a tetrahydroacridinic moiety. Lipocrine is one of the first compounds able to inhibit the catalytic activity of AChE and AChE-induced amyloid-β aggregation and to protect against reactive oxygen species. Due to this interesting profile, lipocrine was also evaluated for BACE1 inhibitory activity, resulting in a potent lead compound for BACE1 inhibition. Starting from this interesting profile, a series of tetrahydroacridine analogues were synthesised varying the chain length between the two fragments. Moreover, following the approach of combining in a single molecule two different pharmacophores, we designed and synthesised different compounds bearing the moieties of known AChEIs (rivastigmine and caproctamine) coupled with lipoic acid, since it was shown that dithiolane group is an important structural feature of lipocrine for the optimal inhibition of BACE1. All the tetrahydroacridines, rivastigmine and caproctamine-based compounds, were evaluated for BACE1 inhibitory activity in a FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) enzymatic assay (test A). With the aim to enhancing the biological activity of the lead compound, we applied the molecular simplification approach to design and synthesize novel heterocyclic compounds related to lipocrine, in which the tetrahydroacridine moiety was replaced by 4-amino-quinoline or 4-amino-quinazoline rings. All the synthesized compounds were also evaluated in a modified FRET enzymatic assay (test B), changing the fluorescent substrate for enzymatic BACE1 cleavage. This test method guided deep structure-activity relationships for BACE1 inhibition on the most promising quinazoline-based derivatives. By varying the substituent on the 2-position of the quinazoline ring and by replacing the lipoic acid residue in lateral chain with different moieties (i.e. trans-ferulic acid, a known antioxidant molecule), a series of quinazoline derivatives were obtained. In order to confirm inhibitory activity of the most active compounds, they were evaluated with a third FRET assay (test C) which, surprisingly, did not confirm the previous good activity profiles. An evaluation study of kinetic parameters of the three assays revealed that method C is endowed with the best specificity and enzymatic efficiency. Biological evaluation of the modified 2,4-diamino-quinazoline derivatives measured through the method C, allow to obtain a new lead compound bearing the trans-ferulic acid residue coupled to 2,4-diamino-quinazoline core endowed with a good BACE1 inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.8 mM). We reported on the variability of the results in the three different FRET assays that are known to have some disadvantages in term of interference rates that are strongly dependent on compound properties. The observed results variability could be also ascribed to different enzyme origin, varied substrate and different fluorescent groups. The inhibitors should be tested on a parallel screening in order to have a more reliable data prior to be tested into cellular assay. With this aim, preliminary cellular BACE1 inhibition assay carried out on lipocrine confirmed a good cellular activity profile (EC50 = 3.7 mM) strengthening the idea to find a small molecule non-peptidomimetic compound as BACE1 inhibitor. In conclusion, the present study allowed to identify a new lead compound endowed with BACE1 inhibitory activity in submicromolar range. Further lead optimization to the obtained derivative is needed in order to obtain a more potent and a selective BACE1 inhibitor based on 2,4-diamino-quinazoline scaffold. A side project related to the synthesis of novel enzymatic inhibitors of BACE1 in order to explore the pseudopeptidic transition-state isosteres chemistry was carried out during research stage at Università de Montrèal (Canada) in Hanessian's group. The aim of this work has been the synthesis of the δ-aminocyclohexane carboxylic acid motif with stereochemically defined substitution to incorporating such a constrained core in potential BACE1 inhibitors. This fragment, endowed with reduced peptidic character, is not known in the context of peptidomimetic design. In particular, we envisioned an alternative route based on an organocatalytic asymmetric conjugate addition of nitroalkanes to cyclohexenone in presence of D-proline and trans-2,5-dimethylpiperazine. The enantioenriched obtained 3-(α-nitroalkyl)-cyclohexanones were further functionalized to give the corresponding δ-nitroalkyl cyclohexane carboxylic acids. These intermediates were elaborated to the target structures 3-(α-aminoalkyl)-1-cyclohexane carboxylic acids in a new readily accessible way.

Structural changes and dynamic behaviour of vanadium oxide-based catalysts for gas-phase selective oxidations

Selective oxidation is one of the simplest functionalization methods and essentially all monomers used in manufacturing artificial fibers and plastics are obtained by catalytic oxidation processes. Formally, oxidation is considered as an increase in the oxidation number of the carbon atoms, then reactions such as dehydrogenation, ammoxidation, cyclization or chlorination are all oxidation reactions. In this field, most of processes for the synthesis of important chemicals used vanadium oxide-based catalysts. These catalytic systems are used either in the form of multicomponent mixed oxides and oxysalts, e.g., in the oxidation of n-butane (V/P/O) and of benzene (supported V/Mo/O) to maleic anhydride, or in the form of supported metal oxide, e.g., in the manufacture of phthalic anhydride by o-xylene oxidation, of sulphuric acid by oxidation of SO2, in the reduction of NOx with ammonia and in the ammoxidation of alkyl aromatics. In addition, supported vanadia catalysts have also been investigated for the oxidative dehydrogenation of alkanes to olefins , oxidation of pentane to maleic anhydride and the selective oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde or methyl formate [1]. During my PhD I focused my work on two gas phase selective oxidation reactions. The work was done at the Department of Industrial Chemistry and Materials (University of Bologna) in collaboration with Polynt SpA. Polynt is a leader company in the development, production and marketing of catalysts for gas-phase oxidation. In particular, I studied the catalytic system for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride (fluid bed technology) and for o-xylene oxidation to phthalic anhydride. Both reactions are catalyzed by systems based on vanadium, but catalysts are completely different. Part A is dedicated to the study of V/P/O catalyst for n-butane selective oxidation, while in the Part B the results of an investigation on TiO2-supported V2O5, catalyst for o-xylene oxidation are showed. In Part A, a general introduction about the importance of maleic anhydride, its uses, the industrial processes and the catalytic system are reported. The reaction is the only industrial direct oxidation of paraffins to a chemical intermediate. It is produced by n-butane oxidation either using fixed bed and fluid bed technology; in both cases the catalyst is the vanadyl pyrophosphate (VPP). Notwithstanding the good performances, the yield value didn’t exceed 60% and the system is continuously studied to improve activity and selectivity. The main open problem is the understanding of the real active phase working under reaction conditions. Several articles deal with the role of different crystalline and/or amorphous vanadium/phosphorous (VPO) compounds. In all cases, bulk VPP is assumed to constitute the core of the active phase, while two different hypotheses have been formulated concerning the catalytic surface. In one case the development of surface amorphous layers that play a direct role in the reaction is described, in the second case specific planes of crystalline VPP are assumed to contribute to the reaction pattern, and the redox process occurs reversibly between VPP and VOPO4. Both hypotheses are supported also by in-situ characterization techniques, but the experiments were performed with different catalysts and probably under slightly different working conditions. Due to complexity of the system, these differences could be the cause of the contradictions present in literature. Supposing that a key role could be played by P/V ratio, I prepared, characterized and tested two samples with different P/V ratio. Transformation occurring on catalytic surfaces under different conditions of temperature and gas-phase composition were studied by means of in-situ Raman spectroscopy, trying to investigate the changes that VPP undergoes during reaction. The goal is to understand which kind of compound constituting the catalyst surface is the most active and selective for butane oxidation reaction, and also which features the catalyst should possess to ensure the development of this surface (e.g. catalyst composition). On the basis of results from this study, it could be possible to project a new catalyst more active and selective with respect to the present ones. In fact, the second topic investigated is the possibility to reproduce the surface active layer of VPP onto a support. In general, supportation is a way to improve mechanical features of the catalysts and to overcome problems such as possible development of local hot spot temperatures, which could cause a decrease of selectivity at high conversion, and high costs of catalyst. In literature it is possible to find different works dealing with the development of supported catalysts, but in general intrinsic characteristics of VPP are worsened due to the chemical interaction between active phase and support. Moreover all these works deal with the supportation of VPP; on the contrary, my work is an attempt to build-up a V/P/O active layer on the surface of a zirconia support by thermal treatment of a precursor obtained by impregnation of a V5+ salt and of H3PO4. In-situ Raman analysis during the thermal treatment, as well as reactivity tests are used to investigate the parameters that may influence the generation of the active phase. Part B is devoted to the study of o-xylene oxidation of phthalic anhydride; industrially, the reaction is carried out in gas-phase using as catalysts a supported system formed by V2O5 on TiO2. The V/Ti/O system is quite complex; different vanadium species could be present on the titania surface, as a function of the vanadium content and of the titania surface area: (i) V species which is chemically bound to the support via oxo bridges (isolated V in octahedral or tetrahedral coordination, depending on the hydration degree), (ii) a polymeric species spread over titania, and (iii) bulk vanadium oxide, either amorphous or crystalline. The different species could have different catalytic properties therefore changing the relative amount of V species can be a way to optimize the catalytic performances of the system. For this reason, samples containing increasing amount of vanadium were prepared and tested in the oxidation of o-xylene, with the aim of find a correlations between V/Ti/O catalytic activity and the amount of the different vanadium species. The second part deals with the role of a gas-phase promoter. Catalytic surface can change under working conditions; the high temperatures and a different gas-phase composition could have an effect also on the formation of different V species. Furthermore, in the industrial practice, the vanadium oxide-based catalysts need the addition of gas-phase promoters in the feed stream, that although do not have a direct role in the reaction stoichiometry, when present leads to considerable improvement of catalytic performance. Starting point of my investigation is the possibility that steam, a component always present in oxidation reactions environment, could cause changes in the nature of catalytic surface under reaction conditions. For this reason, the dynamic phenomena occurring at the surface of a 7wt% V2O5 on TiO2 catalyst in the presence of steam is investigated by means of Raman spectroscopy. Moreover a correlation between the amount of the different vanadium species and catalytic performances have been searched. Finally, the role of dopants has been studied. The industrial V/Ti/O system contains several dopants; the nature and the relative amount of promoters may vary depending on catalyst supplier and on the technology employed for the process, either a single-bed or a multi-layer catalytic fixed-bed. Promoters have a quite remarkable effect on both activity and selectivity to phthalic anhydride. Their role is crucial, and the proper control of the relative amount of each component is fundamental for the process performance. Furthermore, it can not be excluded that the same promoter may play different role depending on reaction conditions (T, composition of gas phase..). The reaction network of phthalic anhydride formation is very complex and includes several parallel and consecutive reactions; for this reason a proper understanding of the role of each dopant cannot be separated from the analysis of the reaction scheme. One of the most important promoters at industrial level, which is always present in the catalytic formulations is Cs. It is known that Cs plays an important role on selectivity to phthalic anhydride, but the reasons of this phenomenon are not really clear. Therefore the effect of Cs on the reaction scheme has been investigated at two different temperature with the aim of evidencing in which step of the reaction network this promoter plays its role.

Catalytic liquid- and gas-phase oxidations for the synthesis of intermediates and specialty chemicals: some examples of industrial relevance

Nowadays, it is clear that the target of creating a sustainable future for the next generations requires to re-think the industrial application of chemistry. It is also evident that more sustainable chemical processes may be economically convenient, in comparison with the conventional ones, because fewer by-products means lower costs for raw materials, for separation and for disposal treatments; but also it implies an increase of productivity and, as a consequence, smaller reactors can be used. In addition, an indirect gain could derive from the better public image of the company, marketing sustainable products or processes. In this context, oxidation reactions play a major role, being the tool for the production of huge quantities of chemical intermediates and specialties. Potentially, the impact of these productions on the environment could have been much worse than it is, if a continuous efforts hadn’t been spent to improve the technologies employed. Substantial technological innovations have driven the development of new catalytic systems, the improvement of reactions and process technologies, contributing to move the chemical industry in the direction of a more sustainable and ecological approach. The roadmap for the application of these concepts includes new synthetic strategies, alternative reactants, catalysts heterogenisation and innovative reactor configurations and process design. Actually, in order to implement all these ideas into real projects, the development of more efficient reactions is one primary target. Yield, selectivity and space-time yield are the right metrics for evaluating the reaction efficiency. In the case of catalytic selective oxidation, the control of selectivity has always been the principal issue, because the formation of total oxidation products (carbon oxides) is thermodynamically more favoured than the formation of the desired, partially oxidized compound. As a matter of fact, only in few oxidation reactions a total, or close to total, conversion is achieved, and usually the selectivity is limited by the formation of by-products or co-products, that often implies unfavourable process economics; moreover, sometimes the cost of the oxidant further penalizes the process. During my PhD work, I have investigated four reactions that are emblematic of the new approaches used in the chemical industry. In the Part A of my thesis, a new process aimed at a more sustainable production of menadione (vitamin K3) is described. The “greener” approach includes the use of hydrogen peroxide in place of chromate (from a stoichiometric oxidation to a catalytic oxidation), also avoiding the production of dangerous waste. Moreover, I have studied the possibility of using an heterogeneous catalytic system, able to efficiently activate hydrogen peroxide. Indeed, the overall process would be carried out in two different steps: the first is the methylation of 1-naphthol with methanol to yield 2-methyl-1-naphthol, the second one is the oxidation of the latter compound to menadione. The catalyst for this latter step, the reaction object of my investigation, consists of Nb2O5-SiO2 prepared with the sol-gel technique. The catalytic tests were first carried out under conditions that simulate the in-situ generation of hydrogen peroxide, that means using a low concentration of the oxidant. Then, experiments were carried out using higher hydrogen peroxide concentration. The study of the reaction mechanism was fundamental to get indications about the best operative conditions, and improve the selectivity to menadione. In the Part B, I explored the direct oxidation of benzene to phenol with hydrogen peroxide. The industrial process for phenol is the oxidation of cumene with oxygen, that also co-produces acetone. This can be considered a case of how economics could drive the sustainability issue; in fact, the new process allowing to obtain directly phenol, besides avoiding the co-production of acetone (a burden for phenol, because the market requirements for the two products are quite different), might be economically convenient with respect to the conventional process, if a high selectivity to phenol were obtained. Titanium silicalite-1 (TS-1) is the catalyst chosen for this reaction. Comparing the reactivity results obtained with some TS-1 samples having different chemical-physical properties, and analyzing in detail the effect of the more important reaction parameters, we could formulate some hypothesis concerning the reaction network and mechanism. Part C of my thesis deals with the hydroxylation of phenol to hydroquinone and catechol. This reaction is already industrially applied but, for economical reason, an improvement of the selectivity to the para di-hydroxilated compound and a decrease of the selectivity to the ortho isomer would be desirable. Also in this case, the catalyst used was the TS-1. The aim of my research was to find out a method to control the selectivity ratio between the two isomers, and finally to make the industrial process more flexible, in order to adapt the process performance in function of fluctuations of the market requirements. The reaction was carried out in both a batch stirred reactor and in a re-circulating fixed-bed reactor. In the first system, the effect of various reaction parameters on catalytic behaviour was investigated: type of solvent or co-solvent, and particle size. With the second reactor type, I investigated the possibility to use a continuous system, and the catalyst shaped in extrudates (instead of powder), in order to avoid the catalyst filtration step. Finally, part D deals with the study of a new process for the valorisation of glycerol, by means of transformation into valuable chemicals. This molecule is nowadays produced in big amount, being a co-product in biodiesel synthesis; therefore, it is considered a raw material from renewable resources (a bio-platform molecule). Initially, we tested the oxidation of glycerol in the liquid-phase, with hydrogen peroxide and TS-1. However, results achieved were not satisfactory. Then we investigated the gas-phase transformation of glycerol into acrylic acid, with the intermediate formation of acrolein; the latter can be obtained by dehydration of glycerol, and then can be oxidized into acrylic acid. Actually, the oxidation step from acrolein to acrylic acid is already optimized at an industrial level; therefore, we decided to investigate in depth the first step of the process. I studied the reactivity of heterogeneous acid catalysts based on sulphated zirconia. Tests were carried out both in aerobic and anaerobic conditions, in order to investigate the effect of oxygen on the catalyst deactivation rate (one main problem usually met in glycerol dehydration). Finally, I studied the reactivity of bifunctional systems, made of Keggin-type polyoxometalates, either alone or supported over sulphated zirconia, in this way combining the acid functionality (necessary for the dehydrative step) with the redox one (necessary for the oxidative step). In conclusion, during my PhD work I investigated reactions that apply the “green chemistry” rules and strategies; in particular, I studied new greener approaches for the synthesis of chemicals (Part A and Part B), the optimisation of reaction parameters to make the oxidation process more flexible (Part C), and the use of a bioplatform molecule for the synthesis of a chemical intermediate (Part D).

Synthesis and Physical-Chemical characterization of Metallic Nanoparticles

The stabilization of nanoparticles against their irreversible particle aggregation and oxidation reactions. is a requirement for further advancement in nanoparticle science and technology. For this reason the research aim on this topic focuses on the synthesis of various metal nanoparticles protected with monolayers containing different reactive head groups and functional tail groups. In this work cuprous bromide nanocrystals haave been synthetized with a diameter of about 20 nanometers according to a new sybthetic method adding dropwise ascorbic acid to a water solution of lithium bromide and cupric chloride under continuous stirring and nitrogen flux. Butane thiolate Cu protected nanoparticles have been synthetized according to three different syntesys methods. Their morphologies appear related to the physicochemical conditions during the synthesis and to the dispersing medium used to prepare the sample. Synthesis method II allows to obtain stable nanoparticles of 1-2 nm in size both isolated and forming clusters. Nanoparticle cluster formation was enhanced as water was used as dispersing medium probably due to the idrophobic nature of the butanethiolate layers coating the nanoparticle surface. Synthesis methods I and III lead to large unstable spherical nanoparticles with size ranging between 20 to 50 nm. These nanoparticles appeared in the TEM micrograph with the same morphology independently on the dispersing medium used in the sample preparation. The stability and dimensions of the copper nanoparticles appear inversely related. Using the same methods above described for the butanethiolate protected copper nanoparticles 4-methylbenzenethiol protected copper nanoparticles have been prepared. Diffractometric and spectroscopic data reveal that decomposition processes didn’t occur in both the 4-methylbenzenethiol copper protected nanoparticles precipitates from formic acid and from water in a period of time six month long. Se anticarcinogenic effects by multiple mechanisms have been extensively investigated and documented and Se is defined a genuine nutritional cancer-protecting element and a significant protective effect of Se against major forms of cancer. Furthermore phloroglucinol was found to possess cytoprotective effects against oxidative stress, thanks to reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are associated with cells and tissue damages and are the contributing factors for inflammation, aging, cancer, arteriosclerosis, hypertension and diabetes. The goal of our work has been to set up a new method to synthesize in mild conditions amorphous Se nanopaticles surface capped with phloroglucinol, which is used during synthesis as reducing agent to obtain stable Se nanoparticles in ethanol, performing the synergies offered by the specific anticarcinogenic properties of Se and the antioxiding ones of phloroalucinol. We have synthesized selenium nanoparticles protected by phenolic molecules chemically bonded to their surface. The phenol molecules coating the nanoparticles surfaces form low ordered arrays as can be seen from the wider shape of the absorptions in the FT-IR spectrum with respect to those appearing in that of crystalline phenol. On the other hand, metallic nanoparticles with unique optical properties, facile surface chemistry and appropriate size scale are generating much enthusiasm in nanomedicine. In fact Au nanoparticles has immense potential for both cancer diagnosis and therapy. Especially Au nanoparticles efficiently convert the strongly adsorbed light into localized heat, which can be exploited for the selective laser photothermal therapy of cancer. According to the about, metal nanoparticles-HA nanocrystals composites should have tremendous potential in novel methods for therapy of cancer. 11 mercaptoundecanoic surface protected Au4Ag1 nanoparticles adsorbed on nanometric apathyte crystals we have successfully prepared like an anticancer nanoparticles deliver system utilizing biomimetic hydroxyapatyte nanocrystals as deliver agents. Furthermore natural chrysotile, formed by densely packed bundles of multiwalled hollow nanotubes, is a mineral very suitable for nanowires preparation when their inner nanometer-sized cavity is filled with a proper material. Bundles of chrysotile nanotubes can then behave as host systems, where their large interchannel separation is actually expected to prevent the interaction between individual guest metallic nanoparticles and act as a confining barrier. Chrysotile nanotubes have been filled with molten metals such as Hg, Pb, Sn, semimetals, Bi, Te, Se, and with semiconductor materials such as InSb, CdSe, GaAs, and InP using both high-pressure techniques and metal-organic chemical vapor deposition. Under hydrothermal conditions chrysotile nanocrystals have been synthesized as a single phase and can be utilized as a very suitable for nanowires preparation filling their inner nanometer-sized cavity with metallic nanoparticles. In this research work we have synthesized and characterized Stoichiometric synthetic chrysotile nanotubes have been partially filled with bi and monometallic highly monodispersed nanoparticles with diameters ranging from 1,7 to 5,5 nm depending on the core composition (Au, Au4Ag1, Au1Ag4, Ag). In the case of 4 methylbenzenethiol protected silver nanoparticles, the filling was carried out by convection and capillarity effect at room temperature and pressure using a suitable organic solvent. We have obtained new interesting nanowires constituted of metallic nanoparticles filled in inorganic nanotubes with a inner cavity of 7 nm and an isolating wall with a thick ranging from 7 to 21 nm.

Synthesis and characterisation of photoreactive silanes for the self-assembly on functionalised silica surfaces

The aim of this thesis was to investigate novel techniques to create complex hierarchical chemical patterns on silica surfaces with micro to nanometer sized features. These surfaces were used for a site-selective assembly of colloidal particles and oligonucleotides. To do so, functionalised alkoxysilanes (commercial and synthesised ones) were deposited onto planar silica surfaces. The functional groups can form reversible attractive interactions with the complementary surface layers of the opposing objects that need to be assembled. These interactions determine the final location and density of the objects onto the surface. Photolithographically patterned silica surfaces were modified with commercial silanes, in order to create hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions on the surface. Assembly of hydrophobic silica particles onto these surfaces was investigated and finally, pH and charge effects on the colloidal assembly were analysed. In the second part of this thesis the concept of novel, "smart" alkoxysilanes is introduced that allows parallel surface activation and patterning in a one-step irradiation process. These novel species bear a photoreactive head-group in a protected form. Surface layers made from these molecules can be irradiated through a mask to remove the protecting group from selected regions and thus generate lateral chemical patterns of active and inert regions on the substrate. The synthesis of an azide-reactive alkoxysilane was successfully accomplished. Silanisation conditions were carefully optimised as to guarantee a smooth surface layer, without formation of micellar clusters. NMR and DLS experiments corroborated the absence of clusters when using neither water nor NaOH as catalysts during hydrolysis, but only the organic solvent itself. Upon irradiation of the azide layer, the resulting nitrene may undergo a variety of reactions depending on the irradiation conditions. Contact angle measurements demonstrated that the irradiated surfaces were more hydrophilic than the non-irradiated azide layer and therefore the formation of an amine upon irradiation was postulated. Successful photoactivation could be demonstrated using condensation patterns, which showed a change in wettability on the wafer surface upon irradiation. Colloidal deposition with COOH functionalised particles further underlined the formation of more hydrophilic species. Orthogonal photoreactive silanes are described in the third part of this thesis. The advantage of orthogonal photosensitive silanes is the possibility of having a coexistence of chemical functionalities homogeneously distributed in the same layer, by using appropriate protecting groups. For this purpose, a 3',5'-dimethoxybenzoin protected carboxylic acid silane was successfully synthesised and the kinetics of its hydrolysis and condensation in solution were analysed in order to optimise the silanisation conditions. This compound was used together with a nitroveratryl protected amino silane to obtain bicomponent surface layers. The optimum conditions for an orthogonal deprotection of surfaces modified with this two groups were determined. A 2-step deprotection process through a mask generated a complex pattern on the substrate by activating two different chemistries at different sites. This was demonstrated by colloidal adsorption and fluorescence labelling of the resulting substrates. Moreover, two different single stranded oligodeoxynucleotides were immobilised onto the two different activated areas and then hybrid captured with their respective complementary, fluorescent labelled strand. Selective hybridisation could be shown, although non-selective adsorption issues need to be resolved, making this technique attractive for possible DNA microarrays.

Rational design of selective anion receptors

The new family of the anion receptors based on oligoureas with varied flexibility was developed and studied. The preparation of the urea chains containing two different units in various sequences was elaborated. The complete sets of four cyclic trimers and six tetramers based on the two units were prepared. Their conformational and complexation properties were studied with NMR spectroscopy and X-ray structure determinations, their behaviour towards various anions was evaluated and compared. The synthesis and the same studies were performed also with four different cyclic hexamers. During these studies the remarkable templation by two halide anions was observed.

DNA block copolymers - synthesis, morphologies and applications

The last decades have witnessed significant and rapid progress in polymer chemistry and molecular biology. The invention of PCR and advances in automated solid phase synthesis of DNA have made this biological entity broadly available to all researchers across biological and chemical sciences. Thanks to the development of a variety of polymerization techniques, macromolecules can be synthesized with predetermined molecular weights and excellent structural control. In recent years these two exciting areas of research converged to generate a new type of nucleic acid hybrid material, consisting of oligodeoxynucleotides and organic polymers. By conjugating these two classes of materials, DNA block copolymers are generated exhibiting engineered material properties that cannot be realized with polymers or nucleic acids alone. Different synthetic strategies based on grafting onto routes in solution or on solid support were developed which afforded DNA block copolymers with hydrophilic, hydrophobic and thermoresponsive organic polymers in good yields. Beside the preparation of DNA block copolymers with a relative short DNA-segment, it was also demonstrated how these bioorganic polymers can be synthesized exhibiting large DNA blocks (>1000 bases) applying the polymerase chain reaction. Amphiphilic DNA block copolymers, which were synthesized fully automated in a DNA synthesizer, self-assemble into well-defined nanoparticles. Hybridization of spherical micelles with long DNA templates that encode several times the sequence of the micelle corona induced a transformation into rod-like micelles. The Watson-Crick motif aligned the hydrophobic polymer segments along the DNA double helix, which resulted in selective dimer formation. Even the length of the resulting nanostructures could be precisely adjusted by the number of nucleotides of the templates. In addition to changing the structural properties of DNA-b-PPO micelles, these materials were applied as 3D nanoscopic scaffolds for organic reactions. The DNA strands of the corona were organized by hydrophobic interactions of the organic polymer segments in such a fashion that several DNA-templated organic reactions proceeded in a sequence specific manner; either at the surface of the micelles or at the interface between the biological and the organic polymer blocks. The yields of reactions employing the micellar template were equivalent or better than existing template architectures. Aside from its physical properties and the morphologies achieved, an important requirement for a new biomaterial is its biocompatibility and interaction with living systems, i.e. human cells. The toxicity of the nanoparticles was analyzed by a cell proliferation assay. Motivated by the non-toxic nature of the amphiphilic DNA block copolymers, these nanoobjects were employed as drug delivery vehicles to target the anticancer drug to a tumor tissue. The micelles obtained from DNA block copolymers were easily functionalized with targeting units by hybridization. This facile route allowed studying the effect of the amount of targeting units on the targeting efficacy. By varying the site of functionalization, i.e. 5’ or 3’, the outcome of having the targeting unit at the periphery of the micelle or in the core of the micelle was studied. Additionally, these micelles were loaded with an anticancer drug, doxorubicin, and then applied to tumor cells. The viability of the cells was calculated in the presence and absence of targeting unit. It was demonstrated that the tumor cells bearing folate receptors showed a high mortality when the targeting unit was attached to the nanocarrier.