En torno a los efectos de la edad en el aprendizaje escolar de una lengua extrangera

The purpose of this article is to treat a currently much debated issue, the effects of age on second language learning. To do so, we contrast data collected by our research team from over one thousand seven hundred young and adult learners with four popular beliefs or generalizations, which, while deeply rooted in this society, are not always corroborated by our data.Two of these generalizations about Second Language Acquisition (languages spoken in the social context) seem to be widely accepted: a) older children, adolescents and adults are quicker and more efficient at the first stages of learning than are younger learners; b) in a natural context children with an early start are more liable to attain higher levels of proficiency. However, in the context of Foreign Language Acquisition, the context in which we collect the data, this second generalization is difficult to verify due to the low number of instructional hours (a maximum of some 800 hours) and the lower levels of language exposure time provided. The design of our research project has allowed us to study differences observed with respect to the age of onset (ranging from 2 to 18+), but in this article we focus on students who began English instruction at the age of 8 (LOGSE Educational System) and those who began at the age of 11 (EGB). We have collected data from both groups after a period of 200 (Time 1) and 416 instructional hours (Time 2), and we are currently collecting data after a period of 726 instructional hours (Time 3). We have designed and administered a variety of tests: tests on English production and reception, both oral and written, and within both academic and communicative oriented approaches, on the learners' L1 (Spanish and Catalan), as well as a questionnaire eliciting personal and sociolinguistic information. The questions we address and the relevant empirical evidence are as follows: 1. "For young children, learning languages is a game. They enjoy it more than adults."Our data demonstrate that the situation is not quite so. Firstly, both at the levels of Primary and Secondary education (ranging from 70.5% in 11-year-olds to 89% in 14-year-olds) students have a positive attitude towards learning English. Secondly, there is a difference between the two groups with respect to the factors they cite as responsible for their motivation to learn English: the younger students cite intrinsic factors, such as the games they play, the methodology used and the teacher, whereas the older students cite extrinsic factors, such as the role of their knowledge of English in the achievement of their future professional goals. 2 ."Young children have more resources to learn languages." Here our data suggest just the opposite. The ability to employ learning strategies (actions or steps used) increases with age. Older learners' strategies are more varied and cognitively more complex. In contrast, younger learners depend more on their interlocutor and external resources and therefore have a lower level of autonomy in their learning. 3. "Young children don't talk much but understand a lot"This third generalization does seem to be confirmed, at least to a certain extent, by our data in relation to the analysis of differences due to the age factor and productive use of the target language. As seen above, the comparably slower progress of the younger learners is confirmed. Our analysis of interpersonal receptive abilities demonstrates as well the advantage of the older learners. Nevertheless, with respect to passive receptive activities (for example, simple recognition of words or sentences) no great differences are observed. Statistical analyses suggest that in this test, in contrast to the others analyzed, the dominance of the subjects' L1s (reflecting a cognitive capacity that grows with age) has no significant influence on the learning process. 4. "The sooner they begin, the better their results will be in written language"This is not either completely confirmed in our research. First of all, we perceive that certain compensatory strategies disappear only with age, but not with the number of instructional hours. Secondly, given an identical number of instructional hours, the older subjects obtain better results. With respect to our analysis of data from subjects of the same age (12 years old) but with a different number of instructional hours (200 and 416 respectively, as they began at the ages of 11 and 8), we observe that those who began earlier excel only in the area of lexical fluency. In conclusion, the superior rate of older learners appears to be due to their higher level of cognitive development, a factor which allows them to benefit more from formal or explicit instruction in the school context. Younger learners, however, do not benefit from the quantity and quality of linguistic exposure typical of a natural acquisition context in which they would be allowed to make use of implicit learning abilities. It seems clear, then, that the initiative in this country to begin foreign language instruction earlier will have positive effects only if it occurs in combination with either higher levels of exposure time to the foreign language, or, alternatively, with its use as the language of instruction in other areas of the curriculum.

Rautakautista asutusta etsimässä. Askolan asutushistoriaa paikannimistön valossa

Summary: Place names and the history of settlement at Askola

Seed production characters and germination performance of reed canary grass in Finland

Selostus: Ruokohelven siementuotanto-ominaisuudet ja itävyys Suomessa

Presidenttiehdokkaiden puhetyylit persoonan ilmentäjinä

Abstract: The image produced by presidential candidates' way of speaking

Relazioni pericolose: ovvero uomini e femminismo

C'e qualcosa d'impertinente e sovversivo nella diade "uomini e femminismo", in cui il nesso copulativo sembrerebbe caricarsi piil che mai di un significato contrastivo anziche esprimere una reale contiguitA. Sento una profonda inquietudine. E non e certo il fantasma della fiera Pentesilea che si erge nella mia mente; piuttosto la voce di Rosi Braidotti che, in un articolo apparso nel 19872, dichiarava «gli uomini non sono e non dovrebbero essere "nel" femminismo; 10 spazio femminista non gli appartiene, non e comprensibile per loro».

Poesia epica e letteratura femminile nell'Italia del XVII secolo: "L'Enrico, ovvero Bisanzio acquistato" (1635) di Lucrezia Marinelli

Nella mia tesi di dottorato mi concentro sul poema di Lucrezia Marinelli, L'Enrico, ovvero Bisanzio acquistato, pubblicato a Venezia nel 1635, indagando le strategie messe in atto dall'autrice per rivisitare il genere epico in un'ottica di riscatto femminile. Rispetto al canone epico e, in particolare, al modello di riferimento - la Gerusalemme liberata del Tasso - le vicende nodali sono, infatti, riscritte da un punto di vista chiaramente femminile. Pur occupandomi principalmente dell'opera di Marinelli, in alcuni casi nel corso del mio lavoro propongo dei confronti con altri poemi epici e cavallereschi prodotti da donne - in particolare I tredici canti del Floridoro di Moderata Fonte (1581) - volti a mostrare come le scrittrici avessero degli intenti comuni, dialogando in maniera critica con i modelli maschili da cui, tuttavia, traggono ispirazione. Nei primi capitoli del mio lavoro prendo in esame alcuni personaggi tradizionali dell'epica (le guerriere, la maga, ...) presenti ne L'Enrico e ne ripercorro gli episodi topici (le sortite notturne, l'eroe sull'isola, ...) dimostrando come, pur inserendosi coerentemente nel genere epico, siano caratterizzati in modo sostanzialmente diverso rispetto alla precedente tradizione maschile. Il primo capitolo si concentra sulle figure di guerriere, le quali presentano - rispetto ai precedenti modelli - differenze notevoli: non si lasciano coinvolgere in vicende amorose e non finiscono per essere sottomesse o uccise da un uomo, mantenendo così coerentemente intatti i valori di forza e indipendenza. Neppure la maga sull'isola - presa in esame nel capitolo dedicato alle Altre figure di donne idealizzate - è coinvolta in vicende sentimentali o caratterizzata sensualmente. L'autrice la rappresenta, non alla stregua di una tentatrice al servizio delle forze del male, ma come una donna colta, casta e disposta ad aiutare il cavaliere naufragato sulla sua isola. Nello stesso capitolo sono indagate anche altre figure femminili idealizzate, per taluni aspetti meno innovative, ma ugualmente interessanti: la Vergine, la personificazione di Venezia e la Musa. Queste rappresentazioni dal carattere iconico, presentano, infatti, diverse caratteristiche in comune con i personaggi più attivi del poema, le guerriere e la maga. Il capitolo Delle pene e delle tragedie amorose è dedicato all'amore e ai suoi esiti tragici. Le figure di donna coinvolte sono le madri, le mogli e Idillia, in cui è riconoscibile il personaggio topico della "damigella in difficoltà". Queste protagoniste, destinate a soffrire perché abbandonate dall'uomo che amano - il quale sente più forte il richiamo della guerra rispetto a quello dell'amore - servono da exempla, dimostrando che attaccamento affettivo e dipendenza conducono inesorabilmente all'infelicità. Rispetto al canone epico Marinelli riscatta alcune figure femminili, permettendo alle sue guerriere di prendersi la rivincita, vendicando la morte di eroine quali Camilla e Clorinda. Conseguentemente, alcuni guerrieri sono destinati a morire per mano di una donna. Nel quarto capitolo, mi concentro proprio su La sconfitta degli eroi, mettendo in luce come l'autrice proponga una sua personale regola del contrappasso, volta a cambiare (e addirittura invertire) le sorti dei personaggi che animano il suo poema. Questi aspetti risultano essere ancora più significativi se confrontati con l'opera - data alle stampe per la prima volta nel 1600 - intitolata Nobiltà et eccellenza delle donne. In questo trattato Marinelli sosteneva la superiorità del genere femminile su quello maschile. Alcune delle posizioni assunte nello scritto giovanile sono confermate dai personaggi e dalle vicende che animano l'Enrico. Confronti puntuali fra trattato e poema epico sono effettuati nell'ultimo capitolo del mio lavoro, sottolineando come fra le due opere vi siano delle affinità volte a confermare l'eccellenza delle donne.

En torno a los efectos de la edad en el aprendizaje escolar de una lengua extrangera

The purpose of this article is to treat a currently much debated issue, the effects of age on second language learning. To do so, we contrast data collected by our research team from over one thousand seven hundred young and adult learners with four popular beliefs or generalizations, which, while deeply rooted in this society, are not always corroborated by our data.Two of these generalizations about Second Language Acquisition (languages spoken in the social context) seem to be widely accepted: a) older children, adolescents and adults are quicker and more efficient at the first stages of learning than are younger learners; b) in a natural context children with an early start are more liable to attain higher levels of proficiency. However, in the context of Foreign Language Acquisition, the context in which we collect the data, this second generalization is difficult to verify due to the low number of instructional hours (a maximum of some 800 hours) and the lower levels of language exposure time provided. The design of our research project has allowed us to study differences observed with respect to the age of onset (ranging from 2 to 18+), but in this article we focus on students who began English instruction at the age of 8 (LOGSE Educational System) and those who began at the age of 11 (EGB). We have collected data from both groups after a period of 200 (Time 1) and 416 instructional hours (Time 2), and we are currently collecting data after a period of 726 instructional hours (Time 3). We have designed and administered a variety of tests: tests on English production and reception, both oral and written, and within both academic and communicative oriented approaches, on the learners' L1 (Spanish and Catalan), as well as a questionnaire eliciting personal and sociolinguistic information. The questions we address and the relevant empirical evidence are as follows: 1. "For young children, learning languages is a game. They enjoy it more than adults."Our data demonstrate that the situation is not quite so. Firstly, both at the levels of Primary and Secondary education (ranging from 70.5% in 11-year-olds to 89% in 14-year-olds) students have a positive attitude towards learning English. Secondly, there is a difference between the two groups with respect to the factors they cite as responsible for their motivation to learn English: the younger students cite intrinsic factors, such as the games they play, the methodology used and the teacher, whereas the older students cite extrinsic factors, such as the role of their knowledge of English in the achievement of their future professional goals. 2 ."Young children have more resources to learn languages." Here our data suggest just the opposite. The ability to employ learning strategies (actions or steps used) increases with age. Older learners' strategies are more varied and cognitively more complex. In contrast, younger learners depend more on their interlocutor and external resources and therefore have a lower level of autonomy in their learning. 3. "Young children don't talk much but understand a lot"This third generalization does seem to be confirmed, at least to a certain extent, by our data in relation to the analysis of differences due to the age factor and productive use of the target language. As seen above, the comparably slower progress of the younger learners is confirmed. Our analysis of interpersonal receptive abilities demonstrates as well the advantage of the older learners. Nevertheless, with respect to passive receptive activities (for example, simple recognition of words or sentences) no great differences are observed. Statistical analyses suggest that in this test, in contrast to the others analyzed, the dominance of the subjects' L1s (reflecting a cognitive capacity that grows with age) has no significant influence on the learning process. 4. "The sooner they begin, the better their results will be in written language"This is not either completely confirmed in our research. First of all, we perceive that certain compensatory strategies disappear only with age, but not with the number of instructional hours. Secondly, given an identical number of instructional hours, the older subjects obtain better results. With respect to our analysis of data from subjects of the same age (12 years old) but with a different number of instructional hours (200 and 416 respectively, as they began at the ages of 11 and 8), we observe that those who began earlier excel only in the area of lexical fluency. In conclusion, the superior rate of older learners appears to be due to their higher level of cognitive development, a factor which allows them to benefit more from formal or explicit instruction in the school context. Younger learners, however, do not benefit from the quantity and quality of linguistic exposure typical of a natural acquisition context in which they would be allowed to make use of implicit learning abilities. It seems clear, then, that the initiative in this country to begin foreign language instruction earlier will have positive effects only if it occurs in combination with either higher levels of exposure time to the foreign language, or, alternatively, with its use as the language of instruction in other areas of the curriculum.

Suomen hollanninpaimenkoirien terveyskartoitus

Summary: Health survey of Dutch shepard dogs in Finland

Relazioni pericolose: ovvero uomini e femminismo

C'e qualcosa d'impertinente e sovversivo nella diade "uomini e femminismo", in cui il nesso copulativo sembrerebbe caricarsi piil che mai di un significato contrastivo anziche esprimere una reale contiguitA. Sento una profonda inquietudine. E non e certo il fantasma della fiera Pentesilea che si erge nella mia mente; piuttosto la voce di Rosi Braidotti che, in un articolo apparso nel 19872, dichiarava «gli uomini non sono e non dovrebbero essere "nel" femminismo; 10 spazio femminista non gli appartiene, non e comprensibile per loro».