Do protected areas mitigate the effects of fisheries-induced evolution on parental care behaviour of a recreationally-important teleost fish?

Human-induced selection on animals and plants has been highly influential throughout our history and resulted in both intentional benefits and unintended detriments. Fisheries-induced evolution (FIE) describes the unintended selection on wild fish populations by fishing that has resulted in the evolution of exploited populations. While the use of aquatic protected areas that exclude angling might be considered an evolutionarily-enlightened management approach to dealing with issues arising from FIE little is known about the effectiveness of this approach for maintaining the phenotypic diversity of traits in protected areas versus those outside of their boundaries. In species that exhibit parental care, including the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), active nest guarding and aggression towards potential brood predators by males increases the survival of offspring. This aggression may render these individuals particularly vulnerable to capture via angling as a result of increased propensity to attack fishing lures near their nests. Relative levels of aggression by these males during the parental care period correlate with their vulnerability to angling year round. Inasmuch as this parental behavior is heritable, this selective removal of more aggressive individuals by anglers should drive population-average phenotypes towards lower levels of aggression. To assess the effectiveness of protected areas at mitigating FIE, I compared the nest guarding behaviours of wild, free-swimming male bass during the early nesting period for bass within and outside protected areas. I found that nesting males within long-standing fishing sanctuaries (>70 yrs) were more aggressive towards captive bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) placed directly on their nests, and patrolled larger areas around their nests compared to bass outside of sanctuaries. Males within protected areas were more likely to strike at artificial fishing lures and more prone to capture during experimental angling events. Collectively, my findings suggest that recreational angling selects for individual bass with lower levels of parental care and aggression, and that the establishment of protected areas may mitigate potential FIE. The extent to which this phenomenon occurs in other species and systems likely depends on the reproductive strategies of the fishes being considered, their spatial ecology relative to sanctuary boundaries, and habitat quality within protected areas.

The VLT-FLAMES Survey of massive stars: Rotation and nitrogen enrichment as the key to understanding massive star evolution

Rotation has become an important element in evolutionary models of massive stars, specifically via the prediction of rotational mixing. Here we study a sample of stars, including rapid rotators, to constrain such models and use nitrogen enrichments as a probe of the mixing process. Chemical compositions (C, N, O, Mg, and Si) have been estimated for 135 early B-type stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud with projected rotational velocities up to similar to 300 km s(-1) using a non-LTE TLUSTY model atmosphere grid. Evolutionary models, including rotational mixing, have been generated attempting to reproduce these observations by adjusting the overshooting and rotational mixing parameters and produce reasonable agreement with 60% of our core hydrogen burning sample. We find (excluding known binaries) a significant population of highly nitrogen-enriched intrinsic slow rotators (nu sin i less than or similar to 50 km s(-1)) incompatible with our models (similar to 20% of the sample). Furthermore, while we find fast rotators with enrichments in agreement with the models, the observation of evolved (dex) fast rotators (log g < 3.7 dex) that are relatively unenriched (a further similar to 20% of the sample) challenges the concept of rotational mixing. We also find that 70% of our blue supergiant sample cannot have evolved directly from the hydrogen-burning main sequence. We are left with a picture where invoking binarity and perhaps fossil magnetic fields is required to understand the surface properties of a population of massive main- sequence stars.

Tracing early stages of species differentiation: Ecological, morphological and genetic divergence of Galapagos sea lion populations

Background: Oceans are high gene flow environments that are traditionally believed to hamper the build-up of genetic divergence. Despite this, divergence appears to occur occasionally at surprisingly small scales. The Galápagos archipelago provides an ideal opportunity to examine the evolutionary processes of local divergence in an isolated marine environment. Galápagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki) are top predators in this unique setting and have an essentially unlimited dispersal capacity across the entire species range. In theory, this should oppose any genetic differentiation.
Results: We find significant ecological, morphological and genetic divergence between the western colonies and colonies from the central region of the archipelago that are exposed to different ecological conditions. Stable isotope analyses indicate that western animals use different food sources than those from the central area. This is likely due to niche partitioning with the second Galápagos eared seal species, the Galápagos fur seal (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) that exclusively dwells in the west. Stable isotope patterns correlate with significant differences in foraging-related skull morphology. Analyses of mitochondrial sequences as well as microsatellites reveal signs of initial genetic differentiation.
Conclusion: Our results suggest a key role of intra- as well as inter-specific niche segregation in the evolution of genetic structure among populations of a highly mobile species under conditions of free movement. Given the monophyletic arrival of the sea lions on the archipelago, our study challenges the view that geographical barriers are strictly needed for the build-up of genetic divergence. The study further raises the interesting prospect that in social, colonially breeding mammals additional forces, such as social structure or feeding traditions, might bear on the genetic partitioning of populations.

Evolution of the nervous system in Paraphanostoma (Acoela)

According to recent molecular studies, the Acoela are the earliest extant bilaterian group. Their nervous system displays a striking variety of patterns. The aim of the present investigation was to study the variability of the nervous system in a monophyletic group of the Acoela. Six species of Paraphanostoma were chosen for the study. Using immunocytochemical methods and confocal scanning laser microscopy, the immunoreactive patterns of serotonin (5-HT) and the neuropeptide GYIRFamide were described in detail. The study has demonstrated that the brains in Paraphanostoma species, although diverse in detail, still follow the same general pattern. 18S rDNA sequences were used to generate a hypothesis of the phylogeny within the group. Characters of the nervous system revealed in this study were coded and analysed together with 18S rDNA data. Several synapomorphies in the nervous system characters were identified. However, numerous parallelisms in the nervous system evolution have occurred. Data obtained demonstrate that the genus Paraphanostoma is closely related to Childia and should belong to the same family, Childiidae.

Experimentally elevated plasma testosterone levels do not influence singing behaviour of male blue tits (Parus caeruleus) during the early breeding season

Sexual selection theory suggests that females might prefer males on the basis of testosterone (T)-dependent secondary sexual traits such as song. Correlational studies have linked high plasma T-levels to high diurnal song output. This has been confirmed in experiments where T-levels were kept high at times when natural T-levels have decreased. However, surprisingly little is known about the relation between T-levels during the early breeding season and song. In many passerine birds males sing at a high rate at dawn early in the breeding season, referred to as the dawn chorus. In blue tits (Parus caeruleus), the dawn chorus coincides with the fertile period of the female, whereas diurnal song occurs throughout the breeding season. Previous studies on blue tits showed that characteristics of the dawn chorus correlate with male reproductive success. We experimentally elevated plasma T-levels in male blue tits during the pre-fertile and fertile period. Our aim was to test whether increased plasma T-levels affect dawn song characteristics and increase the amount of diurnal song. Although T-implants successfully raised circulating T-levels, we did not find any difference between T- and control males in temporal performance measures of dawn song or in diurnal song output. Our results suggest that either there is no direct causal link between song output or quality and individual T-levels, or experimental manipulations of T-levels using implants do not permit detection of such effects during the early breeding season. Although we cannot exclude that individual T-levels are causally linked to other (e.g. structural) song parameters, our results cast doubt on T-dependence as the mechanisms that enforces honesty on song as a sexually selected trait.

Effects of territorial intrusions on eavesdropping neighbors: communication networks in nightingales

Animal communication often occurs in communication networks in which multiple signalers and receivers are within signaling range of each other. In such networks, individuals can obtain information on the quality and motivation of territorial neighbors by eavesdropping on their signaling interactions. In songbirds, extracting information from interactions involving neighbors is thought to be an important factor in the evolution of strategies of territory defense. In a playback experiment with radio-tagged nightingales Luscinia megarhynchos we here demonstrate that territorial males use their familiar neighbors' performance in a vocal interaction with an unfamiliar intruder as a standard for their own response. Males were attracted by a vocal interaction between their neighbor and a simulated stranger and intruded into the neighbor's territory. The more intensely the neighbor had interacted with playback, the earlier the intrusions were made, indicating that males eavesdropped on the vocal contest involving a neighbor. However, males never intruded when we had simulated by a second playback that the intruder had retreated and sang outside the neighbor's territory. These results suggest that territorial males use their neighbors' singing behavior as an early warning system when territorial integrity is threatened. Simultaneous responses by neighboring males towards unfamiliar rivals are likely to be beneficial to the individuals in maintaining territorial integrity.

The VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars: constraints on stellar evolution from the chemical compositions of rapidly rotating Galactic and Magellanic Cloud B-type stars

Aims. We have previously analysed the spectra of 135 early B-type stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and found several groups of stars that have chemical compositions that conflict with the theory of rotational mixing. Here we extend this study to Galactic and Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) metallicities.

Role of behaviour in biological invasions and species distributions; lessons from interactions between the invasive Gammarus pulex and the native G-duebeni (Crustacea : Amphipoda)

In attempting to understand the distributions of both introduced species and the native species on which they impact, there is a growing trend to integrate studies of behaviour with more traditional life history/ecological approaches. The question of what mechanisms drive the displacement of the freshwater amphipod Gammarus duebeni by the often introduced G pulex is presented as a case study Patterns of displacement are well documented throughout Europe, but the speed and direction of displacement between these species can be varied. From early studies proposing interspecific competition as causal in these patterns, I review research progress to date. I show there has been no evidence for interspecific competition operating, other than the field patterns themselves, a somewhat tautological argument. Rather, the increased recognition of behavioural attributes with respect to the cannibalistic and predatory nature of these species gave rise to a series of studies unravelling the processes driving field patterns. Both species engage in 'intraguild predation' (IGP), with moulting females particularly vulnerable to predation by congeneric males. G pulex is more able both to engage in and avoid this interaction with G duebeni. However, several factors mediate the strength and asymmetry of this IGP, some biotic (e.g. parasitism) and others abiotic (e.g. water chemistry). Further, a number of alternative hypotheses that may account for the displacement (hybridization; parasite transmission) have been tested and rejected. While interspecific competition has been modelled mathematically and found to be a weak interaction relative to IGP, mechanisms of competition between these Gammarus species remain largely untested empirically. Since IGP may be finely balanced in some circumstances, I conclude that the challenge to detect interspecific competition remains and we require assessment of its role, if any, in the interaction between these species. Appreciation of behavioural attributes and their mediation should allow us to more fully understand, and perhaps predict, species introductions and resultant distributions.

Embryo retrieval and kin recognition in an amphipod (Crustacea)

Active maternal care directed towards embryos within the brood pouch has been identified in amphipod crustaceans from harsh aquatic environments. This involves 'curl' and 'stretch' components and brood flushing that alters in distinct ways in response to developmental and environmental cues. However, a cost of active brood care in crustaceans is the susceptibility to embryo loss, this being further predisposed by the structure of the amphipod brood pouch. We found embryo retrieval by females of the rock-pool amphipod Apherusa jurinei, whereby females inserted experimentally offered embryos into their brood pouches. Females early in brood development retrieved embryos to a greater degree than both nonovigerous and later stage females. In this experiment, all offered embryos were from other females, indicating a motivation to retrieve embryos that often overrides any kin recognition. In a second experiment, we found kin discrimination, with both early stage and late stage females retrieving more of their own embryos than those from other females. Recognition was not simply of embryos of similar developmental stages. There were high levels of embryo cannibalism in both experiments, but females were significantly less likely to consume their own compared to foreign embryos. We thus further show that 'lower' crustaceans such as amphipods engage in elaborate active maternal care including kin recognition and discrimination. Their maternal behaviour appears to balance the costs and benefits of embryo retrieval, minimizing fitness reductions due to embryo loss and adoption of foreign embryos. (C) 2008 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Foraging ecology, fluctuating food availability and energetics of wintering brent geese

Changing energy requirements and dramatic shifts in food availability are major factors driving behaviour and distribution of herbivores. We investigate this in wintering East Canadian High Arctic light-bellied brent geese Branta bernicla hrota in Northern Ireland. They followed a sequential pattern of habitat use, feeding on intertidal Zostera spp. in autumn and early winter before moving to predominantly saltmarsh and farmland in late winter and early spring. Night-time feeding occurred throughout and made a considerable contribution to the birds' daily energy budget, at times accounting for > 50% of energy intake. Nocturnal feeding, however, is limited to the intertidal, possibly because of predation risk on terrestrial habitat, and increases with moonlight. The amount of Zostera spp., declined dramatically after the arrival of birds, predominantly, but not entirely, due to consumption by the birds. Birds gained fat reserves in the first 2 months but then this was dramatically lost as their major food source collapsed and their daily energy intake declined. Single birds consistently fared worse than paired birds and pairs with juveniles fared better than those without suggesting a benefit of having a family to compete for food. Many birds leave the Lough at this time of reduced Zostera spp. for other sea inlets in Ireland but some remain. Body condition of the latter gradually improved in early spring and reflected a heavy reliance on terrestrial habitats, particularly farmland, to meet the birds' daily energy requirements. However, even in the period immediately before migration to the breeding ground, the birds did not regain the amount of abdominal fatness observed in November. The dramatic changes in available food and requirements of the birds drive the major changes seen in foraging behaviour as the birds evade starvation in the wintering period.

Assessment of fighting ability in animal contests

Selection should favour accurate information gathering regarding the likely costs and benefits of continued conflict. Here we consider how variation in the abilities of contestants to assess resource-holding potential (RHP) influences fights. This has been examined in various game theory models. However, discriminating between assessment strategies has proven difficult and has resulted in confusion. To add clarity, we group existing models into three main types that differ in the information about RHP that contestants are presumed to gather: (1) pure self-assessment, (2) cumulative assessment and (3) mutual assessment. Within this framework we outline methods advocated to discriminate successfully between the three main assessment models. We discuss support for each model, before highlighting a number of conflicting and inconclusive studies, leading us to consider alternative approaches to investigate assessment. Furthermore, we examine support for newly emerging concepts such as 'varying degrees of assessment', 'switching assessment' strategies and the possibility of contestants adopting different assessment strategies within a fight involving distinctive roles. We suggest future studies will benefit by judicious use of a battery of techniques to determine how animals settle contests. Finally, we highlight difficulties with current game theory models, and raise concerns regarding the use of certain behavioural criteria to accept or reject a model, particularly since this may conflict with evidence for a given assessment strategy. Furthermore, the failure of existing models to account for newly emerging concepts points to limitations of their use and leads us to challenge game theoreticians to develop upon them. (C) 2009 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Information gathering and decision making about resource value in animal contests

Contestants are predicted to adjust the cost of a fight in line with the perceived value of the resource and this provides a way of determining whether the resource has been assessed. An assessment of resource value is predicted to alter an animal's motivational state and we note different methods of measuring that state. We provide a categorical framework in which the degree of resource assessment may be evaluated and also note limitations of various approaches. We place studies in six categories: (1) cases of no assessment, (2) cases of internal state such as hunger influencing apparent value, (3) cases of the contestants differing in assessment ability, (4) cases of mutual and equal assessment of value, (5) cases where opponents differ in resource value and (6) cases of particularly complex assessment abilities that involve a comparison of the value of two resources. We examine the extent to which these studies support game theory predictions and suggest future areas of research. (C) 2008 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Where are they now? Tracking the longitudinal evolution of environmental businesses from the 1990s

In 1991 Bennett published one of the first major publications on the concept of ecopreneurship, business opportunities resulting from the emerging environmental agenda of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Since then a body of literature has developed that explores the idea of the intersection of entrepreneurship with environmentally and socially responsible behaviour. Many of the business cases presented by Bennett represent early adopters of green products, services and emerging eco-markets. Given the current emphasis on the transformation of business practices towards a more sustainable paradigm it is timely to review these 94 early ecopreneurial examples and consider their status two decades on from the original publication. This paper explores the definitions of environmental and social enterprise, and considers the longitudinal survival of these companies and the emerging trends in consolidation and failure of the sampled companies.

Effect of plane of nutrition of 1-and 2-year-old ewes in early and mid-pregnancy on ewe reproduction and offspring performance up to weaning

The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of plane of nutrition in early pregnancy (EP) and mid-pregnancy (W), on the productive performance of 1- and 2-year-old ewes and their offspring. Over 2 successive years, between days 0 and 39 after synchronized mating (EP), 1- (n=117) and 2- (n=52) year-old ewes were allowed 60% (low, L-EP), 100% (medium, M-EP) or 200% (high, H-EP) of requirements for maintenance (M). Between days 40 and 90 (MP), 1-year-old ewes were allowed 140% (M-MP) or 200% (H-MP), while 2-year-old ewes were allowed 80% (M-MP) or 140% (H-MP) of their M requirement. After day 90, all ewes were fed to meet requirements for late pregnancy. Increasing the plane of nutrition between days 0 and 39 resulted in increases in live weight (LW) (PM-EP>LEP), differences that in 1-year-old ewes were sustained to lambing (P0.05). These ewes exhibited more positive maternal behaviours (e.g. increased grooming frequency and duration, P