Water Content Determinations for Peat and Other Organic Soils Using the Oven-Drying Method

There has been much debate in the literature over the past 60 years regarding an appropriate oven-drying temperature for water content determinations in peat and other organic soils. For inorganic soils, the water content is usually based on the equilibrium dry mass corresponding to drying temperatures in the range 100-110��C. However, for peat and other organic soils, several researchers have recommended lower drying temperatures in the range 60-90��C in an attempt to prevent possible charring, oxidation, and/or vaporization of substances other than pore water. However, all of the relevant water is not fully evaporated at too low a temperature, and because specimen dry mass is a function of drying temperature, the resulting water content values are lower than those determined for the temperature range 100-110��C. Experimental data reported in this article show that oven drying of peat and other organic soils at 100-110��C using either gravity-convection or forced-draft ovens is acceptable for routine water content determinations. Because a standardized oven temperature is desirable when correlating water content with other material properties, it is recommended that oven drying of peat and other organic soils be performed over temperature ranges of either 105-110��C or 105 �� 5��C, in line with standardized ranges for inorganic soils. �� 2014 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

Edaphic factors affecting the toxicity and accumulation of arsenate in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris

<p>The toxicity and accumulation of arsenate was determined in the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris in soil from different layers of a forest profile. Toxicity increased fourfold between 2 and 10 d. Edaphic factors (pH, soil organic matter, and depth in soil profile) also affected toxicity with a three fold decrease in the concentration that causes 50% mortality with increasing depth in soil (from 0-70 mm to 500-700 mm). In a 4-d exposure study, there was no evidence of arsenic bioconcentration in earthworm tissue, although bioaccumulation was occurring. There was a considerable difference in tissue residues between living and dead earthworms, with dead worms having higher concentrations. This difference was dependent on both soil arsenate concentration and on soil type. Over a wide range of soil arsenate concentrations, earthworm arsenic residues are homeostatically maintained in living worms, but this homeostasis breaks down during death. Alternatively, equilibration with soil residues may occur via accumulation after death. In long-term accumulation studies in soils dosed with a sublethal arsenate concentration (40 ��g/g dry weight), bioconcentration of arsenate did not occur until day 12, after which earthworm concentrations rose steadily above the soil concentration, with residues in worms three fold higher than soil concentrations by the termination of the study (23 d). This bioconcentration only occurred in depurated worms over the time period of the study. Initially, depurated worms had lower arsenic concentrations than undepurated until tissue concentrations were equivalent to the soil concentration. Once tissue concentration was greater than soil concentration, depurated worms had higher arsenic residues than undepurated.</p>

A influ��ncia dos factores humanos, ambientais e do pastoreio na ocorr��ncia de geneta (Genetta genetta) no S��tio Monfurado

O presente estudo determina e analisa a import��ncia relativa de diversos descritores ambientais, de pastoreio e de influ��ncia humana directa na distribui����o da geneta (Genetta genetta L., 1758). O estudo decorreu em Monfurado, S��tio de Import��ncia Comunit��ria, no Sul de Portugal. A ��rea de estudo �� predominantemente agr��cola, maioritariamente ocupada por montado. A an��lise do padr��o de distribui����o deste carn��voro atrav��s de parti����o da vari��ncia e de ITMC (lnformation Theoretic Model Comparison) teve como objectivo orientar as prioridades na gest��o das actividades humanas, compat��veis com a presen��a da esp��cie. Os resultados mostram que a distribui����o da geneta �� maioritariamente influenciada pelos descritores ambientais, apresentando uma rela����o positiva com densidade de montado com matos, conte��do de mat��ria org��nica do solo e ��ndice de Shannon de diversidade vertical da vegeta����o. A sua presen��a parece tamb��m ser promovida por n��veis interm��dios de pastoreio e fora das zonas de ca��a do regime cineg��tico especial. ABSTRACT; This study determines and analyses the relative importance of several environmental, livestock and human descriptors in the distribution of the common genet (Genetta genetta L., 1758). The study was conducted in Monfurado, a Site of Communitary lmportance, in South Portugal. The study area is Mediterranean farmland and is dominated by evergreen oak tree stands, named "montado". Modeling the distribution of this carnivore species was evaluated on the basis of ITMC (lnformation Theoretic Model Comparison) and variation partitioning techniques aiming to define human management activities compatible with the species conservation. The results show that the species distribution is mainly influenced by the environmental descriptors, and is positively related with montado and shrubs density, soil organic matter and Shannon's index of vertical vegetation diversity. Genet presence is favoured by intermediate levels of grazing and outside of game estates areas.

Space-time monitoring of prescribed burnt soils performance – an effective tool for forest management

Among the most important measures to prevent wild forest fires is the use of prescribed and controlled burning actions in order to reduce the availability of fuel mass. However, the impact of these activities on soil physical and chemical properties varies according to the type of both soil and vegetation and is not fully understood. Therefore, soil monitoring campaigns are often used to measure these impacts. In this paper we have successfully used three statistical data treatments - the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test followed by the ANOVA and the Kruskall-Wallis tests – to investigate the variability among the soil pH, soil moisture, soil organic matter and soil iron variables for different monitoring times and sampling procedures.

Microbial use of organic substrates and maize growth, especially in saline and alkaline soils of Pakistani Punjab

This thesis consists of 4 main parts: (1) impact of growing maize on the decomposition of incorporated fresh alfalfa residues, (2) relationships between soil biological and other soil properties in saline and alkaline arable soils from the Pakistani Punjab, (3) decomposition of compost and plant residues in Pakistani soils along a gradient in salinity, and (4) interactions of compost and triple superphosphate on the growth of maize in a saline Pakistani soil. These 4 chapters are framed by a General Introduction and a Conclusions section. (1) In the first study, the effects of growing maize plants on the microbial decomposition of freshly chopped alfalfa residues was investigated in a 90-day pot experiment using a sandy arable soil. Assuming that the addition of alfalfa residues did not affect the decomposition of native soil organic matter, only 27% of the alfalfa residues were found as CO2. This suggests that a considerable part of alfalfa-C remained undecomposed in the soil. However, only 6% of the alfalfa residues could be recovered as plant remains in treatment with solely alfalfa residues. Based on d13C values, it was calculated that plant remains in treatment maize + alfalfa residues contained 14.7% alfalfa residues and 85.3% maize root remains. This means 60% more alfalfa-C was recovered in this treatment. (2) In the second study, the interactions between soil physical, soil chemical and soil biological properties were analysed in 30 Pakistani soils from alkaline and saline arable sites differing strongly in salinisation and in soil pH. The soil biological properties were differentiated into indices for microbial activity, microbial biomass, and community structure with the aim of assessing their potential as soil fertility indices. (3) In the third study, 3 organic amendments (compost, maize straw and pea straw) were added to 5 Pakistani soils from a gradient in salinity. Although salinity has depressive effects on microbial biomass C, biomass N, biomass P, and ergosterol, the clear gradient according to the soil salt concentration was not reflected by the soil microbial properties. The addition of the 3 organic amendments always increased the contents of the microbial indices analysed. The amendment-induced increase was especially strong for microbial biomass P and reflected the total P content of the added substrates. (4) The fourth study was greenhouse pot experiment with different combinations of compost and triple superphosphate amendments to investigate the interactions between plant growth, microbial biomass formation and compost decomposition in a strongly saline Pakistani arable soil in comparison to a non-saline German arable soil. The Pakistani soil had a 2 times lower content of ergosterol, a 4 times lower contents of microbial biomass C, biomass N and biomass P, but nearly a 20 times lower content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of 1% compost always had positive effects on the microbial properties and also on the content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of superphosphate induced a strong and similar absolute increase in microbial biomass P in both soils.

Mikrobielle Nutzung von Ernteresten in Bodens��ulen und Litterbags

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte die Einfl��sse der Bodenart und Einarbeitungstiefe von Streu auf die mikrobielle Nutzung und ihren Abbau. Anhand einer Kohlenstoffsequestrierung wurde die Verlagerung streub��rtigen Kohlenstoffes in die Fraktionen CO2-C, SOC, extrahierbaren Kohlenstoff, Cmik und POM-C betrachtet. Aufgrund der Analyse der ��13C-CO2 Werte der Bodenrespiration, im Rahmen der Sequestrierung des streub��rtigen Kohlenstoffes, war der Anteil der streub��rtigen Bodenrespiration und somit die gesamte, zu erwartende Bodenrespiration bekannt. Durch die, bei der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, ermittelten Werte konnte eine Plausibilit��tspr��fung an vier Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration, auf ihre Genauigkeit und m��gliche Artefakte hin, durchgef��hrt werden. Des Weiteren wurden in einem anschlie��enden Freilandversuch unter subtropischen Bedingungen die Einfl��sse verschiedener D��nger und Feldfr��chte, in Abh��ngigkeit der Streuqualit��t, auf den Streuabbau und die mikrobielle Besiedelung hin untersucht. Im ersten Versuch (Kapitel 3), wurde anhand eines S��ulenversuches der Einfluss der Einarbeitungstiefe, in Anh��ngigkeit der Bodenart, auf den Streuabbau untersucht. Dieses ist von gro��er Bedeutung, da auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Fl��chen Streu und so genannte "Gr��ne D��nger" durch den Einsatz unterschiedlicher Bodenbearbeitungssysteme, wie z.B. der Kreiselegge oder dem Wendepflug, in unterschiedliche Tiefen eingearbeitet werden. Die Verlagerung streub��rtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen, ��ber eine Distanz von bis zu 20 cm wurde innerhalb dieser Arbeit das erste Mal gezeigt. Bisherige Studien zeigten einzig einen Transport von streub��rtigem Kohlenstoff per Pilzhyphen, ��ber eine kurze Distanz von der Detritussph��re in den angrenzenden Boden. Der h��here Anteil streub��rtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes innerhalb der von der Streuschicht weiter entfernten Schichten im sandigen Boden, im Vergleich zum lehmigen Boden zeigte, dass das feine Porenvolumen des lehmigen Bodens den Transport Streub��rtigen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen grunds��tzlich behindert. Diese Annahme wurde durch die st��rkere Abnahme des Anteils streub��rtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes, mit zunehmender Entfernung zur Streuschicht, im lehmigen Boden im Vergleich zum sandigen Boden unterst��tzt. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass der sandige Boden zus��tzlich durch die h��here Porosit��t eine erh��hte Sauerstoffdurchl��ssigkeit und somit, in den tieferen Schichten bessere Wachstumsbedingungen f��r Mikroorganismen bietet als der lehmige Boden. Durch die Ausbreitung substratb��rtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes wurde im sandigen Boden mehr streub��rtiger Kohlenstoff durch Mikroorganismen inkorporiert als im lehmigen Boden. Ein weiterer Grund f��r die geringere Verlagerung von streub��rtigem Kohlenstoff in die mikrobielle Biomasse des lehmigen Bodens ist wahrscheinlich der bessere physikalische Schutz durch den h��heren Tonanteil. Durch die Einarbeitung der Streu stieg in allen Ans��tzen der Gehalt an Ergosterol, welcher ein wesentlicher Indikator f��r die Pr��senz saprotropher Pilze ist. Besonders stark ausgepr��gt war der Anstieg des Ergosterolgehaltes, sowie des Ergosterol / mikrobielle Biomasse C – Quotienten, wenn Streu in die untere Schicht (15 - 20 cm) ein-gearbeitet wurde. Diese tiefenspezifischen Unterschiede wurden bisher in noch keinem weiteren Versuch beobachtet und k��nnen auf die Entwicklung unterschiedlicher pilzlicher Gemeinschaften zur��ck zu f��hren sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass pilzliche Nekromasse in den oberen Bodenschichten schneller umgesetzt wird und somit bei der Ergosterolbestimmung nicht mit erfasst wird. Da der Umsatz der pilzlichen Nekromasse im por��sen sandigen Boden, aufgrund der h��heren Sauerstoffverf��gbarkeit und des geringeren physikalischen Schutzes, vermutlich h��her ist als im lehmigen Boden, wird diese Annahme durch den im sandigen Boden geringeren Gehalt an mikrobiellen Kohlenstoff unterst��tzt. Wie erwartet, ��berstieg die Mineralisation der Streu im sandigen Boden die der im lehmigen Boden. Jedoch anders als erwartet, unterschied sich die Mineralisation in Abh��ngigkeit der Einarbeitungstiefe, mit einer erh��hten Mineralisation bei Einarbeitung der Streu in 0 - 5 cm Tiefe, einzig im sandigen Boden. Die Berechnung des Ertragskoeffizienten zeigte, dass die Substratsnutzungseffizienz der Mikroorganismen im sandigen Boden signifikant geringer war als die im lehmigen Boden. Die Zugabe von Streu f��hrte in beiden B��den, verst��rkt jedoch im lehmigen Boden, zu einem positiven Priming Effekt, der in beiden B��-den st��rker ausgepr��gt war, als Streu in 0–5 cm Tiefe eingearbeitet wurde. Trotz Abnahme der SOC-b��rtigen mikrobiellen Biomasse stieg die Mineralisation des SOC stark an. Es ist anzunehmen, dass extrazellul��re Enzyme wie Cellulase und Lignin modifizierende Enzy-me, produziert von saprotrophen Pilzen, zum Abbau von Cellolose und Lignin der Streu, zum Teil sehr effizient SOC abbauen. Im zweiten Versuch (Kapitel 4) wurde anhand des gleichen S��ulenversuches (Versuch 1; Kapitel 3) der Einfluss der Entfernung von CO2-hot-spots im Boden zur Bodenoberfl��che, in Abh��ngigkeit der Bodenart, auf vier verschiedene Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration betrachtet. Zus��tzlich wurde durch eine Plausibilit��tspr��fung anhand der Kohlenstoffbilanz, basierend auf der in Versuch 1 durchgef��hrten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, die Genauigkeit der vier Methoden in Abh��ngigkeit der Bodenart ��berpr��ft. F��r beide Ans��tze mit sandigem Boden zeigen IR und PAS eine deutliche ��bersch��tzung der mit NaOH und GC bestimmten Bodenrespiration. Die ��bersch��tzung durch IR ist dabei auf die durch die dynamische Haube verursachten Turbulenzen und deren Auswirkungen auf den por��sen sandigen Boden zur��ck zu f��hren. Bei geringen Respirationsraten, wie bei der Kontrolle, zeigt die Messung mittels IR trotz Turbulenzen, verursacht durch den Ventilator der Haube, keine ��bersch��tzung. Die ��bersch��tzung durch PAS hingegen kann nicht auf Turbulenzen, verursacht durch die dynamische Haube, zur��ck gef��hrt werden, da bei den Analysen mit PAS und GC identische Hauben, h��her und gr����er als bei IR, eingesetzt wurden und die Bodenrespiration durch GC nicht ��bersch��tzt wurde. Im Gegensatz zu beiden sandigen Ans��tzen ��bersch��tzt IR die Bodenrespiration im lehmigen Boden nicht. NaOH hingegen untersch��tzt die Bodenrespiration, wenn Streu in 15-20 cm Tiefe des lehmigen Bodens eingearbeitet ist. Dieses ist dadurch zu erkl��ren, dass, bedingt durch die geringere Porosit��t sowie das h��here Wasserhalteverm��gen und dem daraus resultierenden geringeren Luft gef��llten Porenvolumen, die Diffusion von CO2 im lehmigen Boden langsamer ist als im sandigen Boden. Nach Absorption des CO2 der Haubenluft diffundiert das CO2 des CO2-hot-spots in 15-20 cm Tiefe, entlang des Diffusionsgradienten, aufgrund des Diffusionswiderstandes in lehmigen Boden langsamer zur Oberfl��che als im sandigen Boden oder wenn der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfl��che liegt. Da bei der Messung mit der dynamischen Haube diese nur kurz auf der Fl��che verbleibt, beeinflusst der Diffusionsgradient diese Messungen nicht. Hinzukommt, dass bei den Messsystemen, die in Kombination mit der dynamischen Haube eingesetzt werden, im Gegensatz zur Absorption durch Lauge keine CO2 Abreicherung stattfindet und die Diffusion von CO2 aus dem Boden ��ber lange Zeit bis zu hohen CO2 Konzentration in der Haube linear bleibt. Alle drei mit einer dynamischen Haube kombinierten Methoden zeigen mit Korrelations-koeffizienten zwischen 0,90 und 0,93 starke Korrelationen mit NaOH. W��hrend PAS die Bodenrespiration im Verh��ltnis zu NaOH immer ��bersch��tzt, tritt eine ��bersch��tzung durch GC nur bei Mineralisationsraten unter 500 mg m-2 h-1 und f��r IR bei Mineralisations-raten ��ber 40 mg m-2 h-1 ein. Die Plausibilit��tspr��fung zeigt, dass f��r sandigen Boden, mit NaOH und GC eine sehr exakte Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff erreicht wird, wohingegen IR und PAS in der Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff bei deutlich ��ber 100 % liegen. F��r den lehmigen Boden hingegen ist nach Entfernung der CO2-hot-spots zur Bodenoberfl��che zu differenzieren. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfl��che ist die Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff f��r NaOH, GC und IR sehr exakt. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot jedoch in 15-20 cm Tiefe, ist die Wiederfindung des Kohlenstoffes durch NaOH deutlich unter 100 %. Die Wiederfindung durch PAS liegt sowohl f��r den sandigen als auch f��r den lehmigen Boden immer deutlich ��ber 100 %. Im dritten Versuch (Kapitel 5), wurde anhand eines Litterbag-Versuches im Norden des Omans, der Einfluss verschiedener D��nger und Feldfr��chte auf den Abbau von Streu auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Fl��chen in Abh��ngigkeit der Streuqualit��t betrachtet. Bei dem Gro��teil bisheriger Streuabbauversuche, unter gem����igten und subtropischen Klimaten, stand der Abbau von Streu im Wald im Fokus der Betrachtung. Die wenigen Versuche zum Streuabbau auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Fl��chen beschr��nken sich auf die gem����igten Klimate. Wohingegen der Abbau von Streu, sowie der Einfluss von D��nger und Feldfrucht unter subtropischen Bedingungen, zum ersten mal mit der vorliegenden Arbeit fokussiert wurde. Der Verlust an organischem Material war verglichen mit Versuchen un-ter gem����igten Klimaten, bei allen vier Streuarten, generell hoch. Der h��here Abbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu ist auf Unterschiede der Streuqualit��t zur��ckzuf��hren. Neben der Verwertbarkeit durch Mikroorganismen beeinflusst die Streuqualit��t zus��tzlich die "Schmackhaftigkeit" der Streu f��r Organismen der Mesofauna. Wodurch ein selektiver Transport und/oder Grazing von Mikroorganismen stattfindet. Der geringere Abbau der Luzernenstreu verglichen mit Maisstreu jedoch ist nicht auf die Streuqualit��t sondern auf die geringere mikrobielle Besiedelung der Luzernenstreu w��hrend der Versuchszeit zur��ckzuf��hren. Der Unterschied im Grad der mikrobiellen Besiedelung kann durch die erhobenen Daten nicht erkl��rt werden. Es ist jedoch davon auszugehen, dass Leguminosen Substanzen wie z.B. Polyphenole enthalten, welche die mikrobielle Biomasse und im Besonderen die pilzliche Biomasse in beachtlichem Umfang inhibitieren. Ebenso wenig ist der h��here Abbau von Weizenstreu verglichen mit Rapsstreu durch die Streuqualit��t zu begr��nden. Eine m��gliche Erkl��rung f��r den geringeren Abbau der Rapsstreu kann ihr hoher Aluminium Gehalt sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass die Rapsstreu organische Substanzen wie Glucosinolate enth��lt, welche den mikrobiellen Streuabbau inhibitieren. W��hrend der Hemicellulosegehalt am Ende des Versuches nicht durch die Streuqualit��t beeinflusst war, zeigten Cellulose und Lignin quali-t��tsabh��ngige Effekte. Der st��rkere Abbau von Cellulose bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu ist auf den anf��nglich h��heren Stickstoffgehalt zur��ckzuf��hren, wodurch die Produktion und Aktivit��t von Cellulose degradierenden Enzymen, wie Exo-Cellulase, Endo-Cellulase und Xylanase, anstieg. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass die Differenzen im Celluloseabbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu, neben Unterschieden im anf��nglichen Stickstoffgehalt, auf den h��heren Schutz von Cellulose durch Lignin in Raps- und Weizenstreu zur��ckzuf��hren sind. W��hrend der initial geringe Stickstoffgehalt den Ligninabbau in Raps- und Weizenstreu unterst��tzt, ist die relative Anreicherung von Lignin in Luzernen- und Maisstreu hingegen auf den initial hohen Stickstoffgehalt zur��ckzuf��hren. Dem entgegen hat die Zusammensetzung weiterer N��hrstoffe einen sehr geringen Effekt. Es ist jedoch m��glich, dass st��rkere Effekte durch den Eintrag von Boden in die Litterbags durch Organismen der Mesofauna, Wurzelwachstum oder physikalische Verlagerung ��berdeckt werden. W��hrend unter organische D��ngung, die pilzliche Biomasse ansteigt, f��rdert der leicht verf��gbare Stickstoff der mineralischen D��ngung die Bildung bakterieller Biomasse. Der h��her Gehalt an pilzlicher Biomasse unter organischer D��ngung zeigte keinen generellen Effekt auf den Abbau von Kohlenstoff. Er f��hrte jedoch zu einer Ver��nderung in der Streuzusammensetzung. Die verringerte Abnahme bzw. verst��rkte Zunahme der N��hrstoffgehalte bei organischer D��ngung ist durch den Eintrag d��nger-b��rtiger N��hrstoffe, im Besonderen durch die verst��rkte Bildung pilzlicher Hyphen in die Litterbags hinein, zu erkl��ren. Trotz h��herer Gehalte an pilzlicher Biomasse war der Ligningehalt am Ende des Versuches unter organischer D��ngung h��her als unter mineralischer D��ngung. Diese ist auf den Eintrag d��ngerb��rtiger Pilze zur��ckzuf��hren, welche eine geringere Lignindegradierungseffizienz aufweisen. Der Einfluss der Feldfrucht auf den Streuabbau ��u��ert sich durch h��here Gehalte mikrobieller und im Besonderen pilzlicher Biomasse, und durch geringere Gehalte an N, P, Ca, Na und K in, im Litterbag verbleiben-der Streu, unter dem Anbau von Mohrr��ben. Der Anstieg der pilzlichen Biomasse f��hrt, ebenso wie bei der organischen D��ngung zu keinem generellen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffdegradation, zeigt jedoch einen selektiven Effekt auf den Abbau von Cellulose. Der Einfluss, sowohl auf die mikrobielle Biomasse, als auch auf den N��hrstoffgehalt, zeigt die Bedeutung der Unterschiede im Wurzelwachstum, der Rhizodeposition sowie des N��hrstoffbedarfs in Abh��ngigkeit der Feldfrucht. Trotz gro��er Unterschiede der Streuarten im anf��nglichen Gehalt mikrobieller Biomasse war dieser am Ende des Versuches f��r alle Streuarten identisch. Dieses war Folge eines starken Anstiegs der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu sowie einer Abnahme der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche zuvor noch nicht beobachtet wurde. Dieses macht den Einfluss der anf��nglichen mikrobiellen Biomasse auf deren Entwicklung w��hrend des Streuabbauprozesses im Boden deutlich. Es ist anzunehmen, dass ein Teil der anf��nglichen pilzlichen Biomasse der Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche sich unter gem����igten Klimaten entwickelte, unter subtropischen Bedingungen nicht ��berlebensf��hig war. Generell war der Streuabbau durch Pilze dominiert. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass Unterschiede im Pflanzenmaterial einen Einfluss auf die bakterielle Biomasse hatten, Unterschiede in D��ngung und Feldfrucht hingegen die pilzliche Biomasse und die bakterielle Biomasse beeinflussten.

Effects of Different Feeding Regimes on the Digestibility and Faecal Excretion of Nitrogen, Soluble Carbohydrates and Fibre Fractions in Water Buffaloes kept under Subtropical Conditions

In the course of the ���Livestock Revolution���, extension and intensification of, among others, ruminant livestock production systems are current phenomena, with all their positive and negative side effects. Manure, one of the inevitable secondary products of livestock rearing, is a valuable source of plant nutrients and its skillful recycling to the soil-plant interface is essential for soil fertility, nutrient - and especially phosphorus - uses efficiency and the preservation or re-establishment of environmentally sustainable farming systems, for which organic farming systems are exemplarily. Against this background, the PhD research project presented here, which was embedded in the DFG-funded Research Training Group 1397 ���Regulation of soil organic matter and nutrient turnover in organic agriculture ��� investigated possibilities to manipulate the diets of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) so as to produce manure of desired quality for organic vegetable production, without affecting the productivity of the animals used. Consisting of two major parts, the first study (chapter 2) tested the effects of diets differing in their ratios of carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) and of structural to non-structural carbohydrates on the quality of buffalo manure under subtropical conditions in Sohar, Sultanate of Oman. To this end, two trials were conducted with twelve water buffalo heifers each, using a full Latin Square design. One control and four tests diets were examined during three subsequent 7 day experimental periods preceded each by 21 days adaptation. Diets consisted of varying proportions of Rhodes grass hay, soybean meal, wheat bran, maize, dates, and a commercial concentrate to achieve a (1) high C/N and high NDF (neutral detergent fibre)/SC (soluble carbohydrate) ratio (HH), (2) low C/N and low NDF/SC ratio (LL); (3) high C/N and low NDF/SC ratio (HL) and (4) low C/N and high NDF/SC (LH) ratio. Effects of these diets, which were offered at 1.45 times maintenance requirements of metabolizable energy, and of individual diet characteristics, respectively, on the amount and quality of faeces excreted were determined and statistically analysed. The faeces produced from diets HH and LL were further tested in a companion PhD study (Mr. K. Siegfried) concerning their nutrient release in field experiments with radish and cabbage. The second study (chapter 3) focused on the effects of the above-described experimental diets on the rate of passage of feed particles through the gastrointestinal tract of four randomly chosen animals per treatment. To this end, an oral pulse dose of 683 mg fibre particles per kg live weight marked with Ytterbium (Yb; 14.5 mg Yb g-1 organic matter) was dosed at the start of the 7 day experimental period which followed 21 days of adaptation. During the first two days a sample for Yb determination was kept from each faecal excretion, during days 3 – 7 faecal samples were kept from the first morning and the first evening defecation only. Particle passage was modelled using a one-compartment age-dependent Gamma-2 model. In both studies individual feed intake and faecal excretion were quantified throughout the experimental periods and representative samples of feeds and faeces were subjected to proximate analysis following standard protocols. In the first study the organic matter (OM) intake and excretion of LL and LH buffaloes were significantly lower than of HH and HL animals, respectively. Digestibility of N was highest in LH (88%) and lowest in HH (74%). While NDF digestibility was also highest in LH (85%) it was lowest in LL (78%). Faecal N concentration was positively correlated (P���0.001) with N intake, and was significantly higher in faeces excreted by LL than by HH animals. Concentrations of fibre and starch in faecal OM were positively affected by the respective dietary concentrations, with NDF being highest in HH (77%) and lowest in LL (63%). The faecal C/N ratio was positively related (P���0.001) to NDF intake; C/N ratios were 12 and 7 for HH and LL (P���0.001), while values for HL and LH were 11.5 and 10.6 (P>0.05). The results from the second study showed that dietary N concentration was positively affecting faecal N concentration (P���0.001), while there was a negative correlation with the faecal concentration of NDF (P���0.05) and the faecal ratios of NDF/N and C/N (P���0.001). Particle passage through the mixing compartment was lower (P���0.05) for HL (0.033 h-1) than for LL (0.043 h-1) animals, while values of 0.034 h-1 and 0.038 h-1 were obtained for groups LH and HH. At 55.4 h, total tract mean retention time was significantly (P���0.05) lower in group LL that in all other groups where these values varied between 71 h (HH) and 79 h (HL); this was probably due to the high dietary N concentration of diet LL which was negatively correlated with time of first marker appearance in faeces (r= 0.84, P���0.001), while the dietary C concentration was negatively correlated with particle passage through the mixing compartment (r= 0.57, P���0.05). The results suggest that manure quality of river buffalo heifers can be considerably influenced by diet composition. Despite the reportedly high fibre digestion capacity of buffalo, digestive processes did not suppress the expression of diet characteristics in the faeces. This is important when aiming at producing a specific manure quality for fertilization purposes in (organic) crop cultivation. Although there was a strong correlation between the ingestion and the faecal excretion of nitrogen, the correlation between diet and faecal C/N ratio was weak. To impact on manure mineralization, the dietary NDF and N concentrations seem to be the key control points, but modulating effects are achieved by the inclusion of starch into the diet. Within the boundaries defined by the animals��� metabolic and (re)productive requirements for energy and nutrients, diet formulation may thus take into account the abiotically and biotically determined manure turnover processes in the soil and the nutrient requirements of the crops to which the manure is applied, so as to increase nutrient use efficiency along the continuum of the feed, the animal, the soil and the crop in (organic) farming systems.

Agricultural practices and horizontal nutrient balances in urban gardens and the alternative use of urban agricultural land in Khartoum, Sudan

The surge in the urban population evident in most developing countries is a worldwide phenomenon, and often the result of drought, conflicts, poverty and the lack of education opportunities. In parallel with the growth of the cities is the growing need for food which leads to the burgeoning expansion of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). In this context, urban agriculture (UA) contributes significantly to supplying local markets with both vegetable and animal produce. As an income generating activity, UA also contributes to the livelihoods of poor urban dwellers. In order to evaluate the nutrient status of urban soils in relation to garden management, this study assessed nutrient fluxes (inputs and outputs) in gardens on urban Gerif soils on the banks of the River Nile in Khartoum, the capital city of Sudan. To achieve this objective, a preliminary baseline survey was carried out to describe the structure of the existing garden systems. In cooperation with the author of another PhD thesis (Ms. Ishtiag Abdalla), alternative uses of cow dung in brick making kilns in urban Khartoum were assessed; and the socio-economic criteria of the brick kiln owners or agents, economical and plant nutritional value of animal dung and the gaseous emission related to brick making activities were assessed. A total of 40 household heads were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to collect information on demographic, socio-economic and migratory characteristics of the household members, the gardening systems used and the problems encountered in urban gardening. Based on the results of this survey, gardens were divided into three groups: mixed vegetable-fodder gardens, mixed vegetable-subsistence livestock gardens and pure vegetable gardens. The results revealed that UA is the exclusive domain of men, 80% of them non-native to Khartoum. The harvested produce in all gardens was market oriented and represented the main source of income for 83% of the gardeners. Fast growing leafy vegetables such as Jew���s mallow (Corchorous olitorius L.), purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) and rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.) were the dominant cultivated species. Most of the gardens (95%) were continuously cultivated throughout the year without any fallow period, unless they were flooded. Gardeners were not generally aware of the importance of crop diversity, which may help them overcome the strongly fluctuating market prices for their produce and thereby strengthen the contributions of UA to the overall productivity of the city. To measure nutrient fluxes, four gardens were selected and their nutrients inputs and outputs flows were monitored. In each garden, all plots were monitored for quantification of nutrient inputs and outputs. To determine soil chemical fertility parameters in each of the studied gardens, soil samples were taken from three selected plots at the beginning of the study in October 2007 (gardens L1, L2 and H1) and in April 2008 (garden H2) and at the end of the study period in March 2010. Additional soil sampling occurred in May 2009 to assess changes in the soil nutrient status after the River Nile flood of 2008 had receded. Samples of rain and irrigation water (river and well-water) were analyzed for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and carbon (C) content to determine their nutrient inputs. Catchment traps were installed to quantify the sediment yield from the River Nile flood. To quantify the nutrient inputs of sediments, samples were analyzed for N, P, K and organic carbon (Corg) content, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the particle size distribution. The total nutrient inputs were calculated by multiplying the sediment nutrient content by total sediment deposits on individual gardens. Nutrient output in the form of harvested yield was quantified at harvest of each crop. Plant samples from each field were dried, and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. Cumulative leaching losses of mineral N and P were estimated in a single plot in garden L1 from December 1st 2008 to July 1st 2009 using 12 ion exchange resins cartridges. Nutrients were extracted and analyzed for nitrate (NO3--N), ammonium (NH4+-N) and phosphate PO4-3-P. Changes in soil nutrient balance were assessed as inputs minus outputs. The results showed that across gardens, soil N and P concentrations increased from 2007 to 2009, while particle size distribution remained unchanged. Sediment loads and their respective contents of N, P and Corg decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from the gardens of the downstream lowlands (L1 and L2) to the gardens of the upstream highlands (H1 and H2). No significant difference was found in K deposits. None of the gardens received organic fertilizers and the only mineral fertilizer applied was urea (46-0-0). This equaled 29, 30, 54, and 67% of total N inputs to gardens L1, L2, H1, and H2, respectively. Sediment deposits of the River Nile floods contributed on average 67, 94, 6 and 42% to the total N, P, K and C inputs in lowland gardens and 33, 86, 4 and 37% of total N, P, K and C inputs in highland gardens. Irrigation water and rainfall contributed substantially to K inputs representing 96, 92, 94 and 96% of total K influxes in garden L1, L2, H1 and H2, respectively. Following the same order, total annual DM yields in the gardens were 26, 18, 16 and 1.8 t ha-1. Annual leaching losses were estimated to be 0.02 kg NH4+-N ha-1 (SE = 0.004), 0.03 kg NO3--N ha-1 (SE = 0.002) and 0.005 kg PO4-3-P ha-1 (SE = 0.0007). Differences between nutrient inputs and outputs indicated negative nutrient balances for P and K and positive balances of N and C for all gardens. The negative balances in P and K call for adoptions of new agricultural techniques such as regular manure additions or mulching which may enhance the soil organic matter status. A quantification of fluxes not measured in our study such as N2-fixation, dry deposition and gaseous emissions of C and N would be necessary to comprehensively assess the sustainability of these intensive gardening systems. The second part of the survey dealt with the brick making kilns. A total of 50 brick kiln owners/or agents were interviewed from July to August 2009, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data collected included general information such as age, family size, education, land ownership, number of kilns managed and/or owned, number of months that kilns were in operation, quantity of inputs (cow dung and fuel wood) used, prices of inputs and products across the production season. Information related to the share value of the land on which the kilns were built and annual income for urban farmers and annual returns from dung for the animal raisers was also collected. Using descriptive statistics, budget calculation and Gini coefficient, the results indicated that renting the land to brick making kilns yields a 5-fold higher return than the rent for agriculture. Gini coefficient showed that the kiln owners had a more equal income distribution compared to farmers. To estimate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and losses of N, P, K, Corg and DM from cow dung when used in brick making, samples of cow dung (loose and compacted) were collected from different kilns and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. The procedure modified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1994) was used to estimate the gaseous emissions of cow dung and fuel wood. The amount of deforested wood was estimated according to the default values for wood density given by Dixon et al. (1991) and the expansion ratio for branches and small trees given by Brown et al. (1989). The data showed the monetary value of added N and P from cow dung was lower than for mineral fertilizers. Annual consumption of compacted dung (381 t DM) as biomass fuel by far exceeded the consumption of fuel wood (36 t DM). Gaseous emissions from cow dung and fuel wood were dominated by CO2, CO and CH4. Considering that Gerif land in urban Khartoum supports a multifunctional land use system, efficient use of natural resources (forest, dung, land and water) will enhance the sustainability of the UA and brick making activities. Adoption of new kilns with higher energy efficiency will reduce the amount of biomass fuels (cow dung and wood) used the amount of GHGs emitted and the threat to the few remaining forests.

Application of biogas slurries from energy crops to arable soils and their impact on carbon and nitrogen dynamics

The use of renewable primary products as co-substrate or single substrate for biogas production has increased consistently over the last few years. Maize silage is the preferential energy crop used for fermentation due to its high methane (CH4) yield per hectare. Equally, the by-product, namely biogas slurry (BS), is used with increasing frequency as organic fertilizer to return nutrients to the soil and to maintain or increase the organic matter stocks and soil fertility. Studies concerning the application of energy crop-derived BS on the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) mineralization dynamics are scarce. Thus, this thesis focused on the following objectives: I) The determination of the effects caused by rainfall patterns on the C and N dynamics from two contrasting organic fertilizers, namely BS from maize silage and composted cattle manure (CM), by monitoring emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and CH4 as well as leaching losses of C and N. II) The investigation of the impact of differences in soil moisture content after the application of BS and temperature on gaseous emissions (CO2, N2O and CH4) and leaching of C and N compounds. III) A comparison of BS properties obtained from biogas plants with different substrate inputs and operating parameters and their effect on C and N dynamics after application to differently textured soils with varying application rates and water contents. For the objectives I) and II) two experiments (experiment I and II) using undisturbed soil cores of a Haplic Luvisol were carried out. Objective III) was studied on a third experiment (experiment III) with disturbed soil samples. During experiment I three rainfall patterns were implemented including constant irrigation, continuous irrigation with periodic heavy rainfall events, and partial drying with rewetting periods. Biogas slurry and CM were applied at a rate of 100 kg N ha-1. During experiment II constant irrigation and an irrigation pattern with partial drying with rewetting periods were carried out at 13.5��C and 23.5��C. The application of BS took place either directly before a rewetting period or one week after the rewetting period stopped. Experiment III included two soils of different texture which were mixed with ten BS���s originating from ten different biogas plants. Treatments included low, medium and high BS-N application rates and water contents ranging from 50% to 100% of water holding capacity (WHC). Experiment I and II showed that after the application of BS cumulative N2O emissions were 4 times (162 mg N2O-N m-2) higher compared to the application of CM caused by a higher content of mineral N (Nmin) in the form of ammonium (NH4+) in the BS. The cumulative emissions of CO2, however, were on the same level for both fertilizers indicating similar amounts of readily available C after composting and fermentation of organic material. Leaching losses occurred predominantly in the mineral form of nitrate (NO3-) and were higher in BS amended soils (9 mg NO3--N m-2) compared to CM amended soils (5 mg NO3--N m-2). The rainfall pattern in experiment I and II merely affected the temporal production of C and N emissions resulting in reduced CO2 and enhanced N2O emissions during stronger irrigation events, but showed no effect on the cumulative emissions. Overall, a significant increase of CH4 consumption under inconstant irrigation was found. The time of fertilization had no effect on the overall C and N dynamics. Increasing temperature from 13.5��C to 23.5��C enhanced the CO2 and N2O emissions by a factor of 1.7 and 3.7, respectively. Due to the increased microbial activity with increasing temperature soil respiration was enhanced. This led to decreasing oxygen (O2) contents which in turn promoted denitrification in soil due to the extension of anaerobic microsites. Leaching losses of NO3- were also significantly affected by increasing temperature whereas the consumption of CH4 was not affected. The third experiment showed that the input materials of biogas plants affected the properties of the resulting BS. In particular the contents of DM and NH4+ were determined by the amount of added plant biomass and excrement-based biomass, respectively. Correlations between BS properties and CO2 or N2O emissions were not detected. Solely the ammonia (NH3) emissions showed a positive correlation with NH4+ content in BS as well as a negative correlation with the total C (Ct) content. The BS-N application rates affected the relative CO2 emissions (% of C supplied with BS) when applied to silty soil as well as the relative N2O emissions (% of N supplied with BS) when applied to sandy soil. The impacts on the C and N dynamics induced by BS application were exceeded by the differences induced by soil texture. Presumably, due to the higher clay content in silty soils, organic matter was stabilized by organo-mineral interactions and NH4+ was adsorbed at the cation exchange sites. Different water contents induced highest CO2 emissions and therefore optimal conditions for microbial activity at 75% of WHC in both soils. Cumulative nitrification was also highest at 75% and 50% of WHC whereas the relative N2O emissions increased with water content and showed higher N2O losses in sandy soils. In summary it can be stated that the findings of the present thesis confirmed the high fertilizer value of BS���s, caused by high concentrations of NH4+ and labile organic compounds such as readily available carbon. These attributes of BS���s are to a great extent independent of the input materials of biogas plants. However, considerably gaseous and leaching losses of N may occur especially at high moisture contents. The emissions of N2O after field application corresponded with those of animal slurries.

Effects of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Banana (Musa AAA cv. Malindi) in Oman

The Sultanate of Oman is located on the south-eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, which lies on the south-western tip of the Asian continent. The strategic geographical locations of the Sultanate with its many maritime ports distributed on the Indian Ocean have historically made it one of the Arabian Peninsula leaders in the international maritime trade sector. Intensive trading relationships over long time periods have contributed to the high plant diversity seen in Oman where agricultural production depends entirely on irrigation from groundwater sources. As a consequence of the expansion of the irrigated area, groundwater depletion has increased, leading to the intrusion of seawater into freshwater aquifers. This phenomenon has caused water and soil salinity problems in large parts of the Al-Batinah governorate of Oman and threatens cultivated crops, including banana (Musa spp.). According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the majority of South Al-Batinah farms are affected by salinity (ECe > 4 dS m-1). As no alternative farmland is available, the reclamation of salt-affected soils using simple cultural practices is of paramount importance, but in Oman little scientific research has been conducted to develop such methods of reclamation. This doctoral study was initiated to help filling this research gap, particularly for bananas. A literature review of the banana cultivation history revealed that the banana germplasm on the Arabian Peninsula is probably introduced from Indonesia and India via maritime routes across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. In a second part of this dissertation, two experiments are described. A laboratory trial conducted at the University of Kassel, in Witzenhausen, Germany from June to July 2010. This incubation experiment was done to explore how C and N mineralization of composted dairy manure and date palm straw differed in alkaline non-saline and saline soils. Each soil was amended with four organic fertilizers: 1) composted dairy manure, 2) manure + 10% date palm straw, 3) manure + 30% date palm straw or 4) date palm straw alone, in addition to un-amended soils as control. The results showed that the saline soil had a lower soil organic C content and microbial biomass C than the non-saline soil. This led to lower mineralization rates of manure and date palm straw in the saline soil. In the non-saline soil, the application of manure and straw resulted in significant increases of CO2 emissions, equivalent to 2.5 and 30% of the added C, respectively. In the non-amended control treatment of the saline soil, the sum of CO2-C reached only 55% of the soil organic C in comparison with the non-saline soil. In which 66% of the added manure and 75% of the added straw were emitted, assuming that no interactions occurred between soil organic C, manure C and straw C during microbial decomposition. The application of straw always led to a net N immobilization compared to the control. Salinity had no specific effect on N mineralization as indicated by the CO2-C to Nmin ratio of soil organic matter and manure. However, N immobilization was markedly stronger in the saline soil. Date palm straw strongly promoted saprotrophic fungi in contrast to manure and the combined application of manure and date palm straw had synergistic positive effects on soil microorganisms. In the last week of incubation, net-N mineralization was observed in nearly all treatments. The strongest increase in microbial biomass C was observed in the manure + straw treatment. In both soils, manure had no effect on the fungi-specific membrane component ergosterol. In contrast, the application of straw resulted in strong increases of the ergosterol content. A field experiment was conducted on two adjacent fields at the Agricultural Research Station, Rumais (23��41���15��� N, 57��59���1��� E) in the South of Al-Batinah Plain in Oman from October 2007 to July 2009. In this experiment, the effects of 24 soil and fertilizer treatments on the growth and productivity of Musa AAA cv. 'Malindi' were evaluated. The treatments consisted of two soil types (saline and amended non-saline), two fertilizer application methods (mixed and ring applied), six fertilizer amendments (1: fresh dairy manure, 2: composted dairy manure, 3: composted dairy manure and 10% date palm straw, 4: composted dairy manure and 30% date palm straw, 5: only NPK, and 6: NPK and micronutrients). Sandy loam soil was imported from another part of Oman to amended the soil in the planting holes and create non-saline conditions in the root-zone. The results indicate that replacing the saline soil in the root zone by non-saline soil improved plant growth and yield more than fertilizer amendments or application methods. Particularly those plants on amended soil where NPK was applied using the ring method and which received micronutrients grew significantly faster to harvest (339 days), had a higher average bunch weight (9.5 kg/bunch) and were consequently more productive (10.6 tonnes/hectare/cycle) compared to the other treatments.

Effects of grassland renovation on carbon concentrations and aggregate distribution in temperate grassland soils

The effects of continuous tillage on the distribution of soil organic matter (SOM) and aggregates have been well studied for arable soils. However, less is known about the effects of sporadic tillage on SOM and aggregate dynamics in grassland soils. The objectives of the present thesis were (I) to study the longer-term effects of sporadic tillage of grassland on organic carbon (Corg) stocks and the distribution of aggregates and SOM, (II) to investigate the combined effects of sporadic tillage and fertilization on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in grassland soils, and (III) to study the temporal dynamics of Corg stocks, aggregate distribution and microbial biomass in grassland soils. Soil samples were taken in three soil depths (0 – 10 cm; 10 – 25 cm; 25 – 40 cm) from a field trial with loamy sandy soils (Cambisols, Eutric Luvisols, Stagnosols, Anthrosols) north of Kiel, Germany. For Objective I we have sampled soil two and five years after one or two tillage operation(s). Treatments consisted of (i) permanent grassland, (ii) tillage of grassland followed by a re-establishment of grassland and (iii) tillage of grassland followed by a re-establishment of grassland with one season of winter wheat in between. The tillage in grassland led to a reduction in Corg stocks, large macroaggregates (>2000 ��m) and SOM in the top 10 cm soil depth. These findings were still significant two years after tillage; however, five years after tillage no longer present. Regarding the soil profile (0 – 40 cm) no significant differences in the mentioned parameters between the tilled plots and the permanent grassland existed. A second tillage event and the insertion of one season of winter wheat did not lead to any further effects on Corg stocks as well as aggregate and SOM concentrations in comparison with a single tillage event in these grassland soils. Treatments adapted for Objective II included (i) long-term grassland and (ii) tillage of grassland followed by a re-establishment of grassland with one season of winter wheat in between. The plots were split and received either 240 kg N ha-1 year-1 in the form of cattle slurry or no cattle slurry application. The application of slurry within a period of four years had no effects on the Corg and total nitrogen stocks or the aggregate distribution, but led to a reduction of free and not physically protected SOM. However, the application of cattle slurry and the grassland renovation seems to change the plant species composition and therefore generalizations on the direct effects are not yet possible. For studying Objective III a further field trial was initiated in September 2010. Soil samples were taken six times within one year (from October 2010 to October 2011) (i) after the conversion from arable land into grassland, (ii) after the tillage of grassland followed by a re-establishment of grassland and (iii) in a permanent grassland. We found an increase in the microbial and fungal biomass after the conversion of arable land into grassland, but no effect on aggregate distribution and Corg stocks. A one-time tillage operation in grassland led to a reduction in large macroaggregates and Corg stocks in the top 10 cm soil depth with no effect on the sampled soil profile. However, we found large variations in the fungal biomass and aggregate distribution within one year in the permanent grassland, presumably caused by environmental factors. Overall, our results suggest that a single tillage operation in grassland soils markedly decreased the concentrations of Corg, larger aggregates and SOM. However, this does not result in long-lasting effects on the above mentioned parameters. The application of slurry cannot compensate the negative effects of a tillage event on aggregate concentrations or Corg stocks. However, while the Corg concentration is not subject to fluctuations within a year, there are large variations of the aggregate distribution even in a permanent grassland soil. Therefore conclusions of results from a single sampling time should be handled with care.

Connecting the Water and Carbon Cycles for the Generation of Food Security and Ecosystem Services

Water scarcity and food insecurity are pervasive issues in the developing world and are also intrinsically linked to one another. Through the connection of the water cycle and the carbon cycle this study illustrates that synergistic benefits can be realized by small scale farmers through the implementation of waste water irrigated agroforestry. The WaNuLCAS model is employed using La Huerta agroforestry site in Texcoco, South Central Mexico, as the basis for parameterization. The results of model simulations depicting scenarios of water scarcity and waste water irrigation clearly show that the addition of waste water greatly increases the agroforestry system���s generation of crop yields, above- and below-ground biomass, soil organic matter and carbon storage potential. This increase in carbon sequestration by the system translates into better local food security, diversified household income through payments for ecosystem services and contributes to the mitigation of global climate change.

Effects of activated charcoal and quebracho tannins on the turnover of goat manure in irrigated organic agriculture of the subtropics

Agriculture in semi-arid and arid regions is constantly gaining importance for the security of the nutrition of humankind because of the rapid population growth. At the same time, especially these regions are more and more endangered by soil degradation, limited resources and extreme climatic conditions. One way to retain soil fertility under these conditions in the long run is to increase the soil organic matter. Thus, a two-year field experiment was conducted to test the efficiency of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as stabilizers of soil organic matter on a sandy soil low in nutrients in Northern Oman. Both activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract were either fed to goats and after defecation applied to the soil or directly applied to the soil in combination with dried goat manure. Regardless of the application method, both additives reduced decomposition of soil-applied organic matter and thus stabilized and increased soil organic carbon. The nutrient release from goat manure was altered by the application of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as well, however, nutrient release was not always slowed down. While activated charcoal fed to goats, was more effective in stabilising soil organic matter and in reducing nutrient release than mixing it, for quebracho tannin extract the opposite was the case. Moreover, the efficiency of the additives was influenced by the cultivated crop (sweet corn and radish), leading to unexplained interactions. The reduced nutrient release caused by the stabilization of the organic matter might be the reason for the reduced yields for sweet corn caused by the application of manure amended with activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract. Radish, on the other hand, was only inhibited by the presence of quebracho tannin extract but not by activated charcoal. This might be caused by a possible allelopathic effect of tannins on crops. To understand the mechanisms behind the changes in manure, in the soil, in the mineralisation and the plant development and to resolve detrimental effects, further research as recommended in this dissertation is necessary. Particularly in developing countries poor in resources and capital, feeding charcoal or tannins to animals and using their faeces as manure may be promising to increase soil fertility, sequester carbon and reduce nutrient losses, when yield reductions can be resolved.

Microbial response to restoration of tantalite mine soils in western Rwanda

Artisanal columbite-tantalite (coltan) mining has had negative effects on the rural economy in the great Lakes region of Africa through labor deficits, degradation and loss of farmland, food insecurity, high cost of living, and reduced traditional export crop production alongside secondary impacts that remotely affect the quality of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and human wellbeing. The situation is multifaceted and calls for a holistic approach for short and long-term mitigation of such negative effects. This study focuses on the effects of mine land restoration on soil microbiological quality in the Gatumba Mining District of western Rwanda. Some coltan mine wastelands were afforested with pine and eucalyptus trees while farmers directly cultivated others due to land scarcity. Farmyard manure (FYM) is the sole fertilizer applied on the wastelands although it is insufficient to achieve the desired crop yields. Despite this, several multi-purpose plants such as Tithonia diversifolia, Markhamia lutea, and Canavalia brasiliensis thrive in the area and could supplement FYM. The potential for these ���new��� amendments to improve soil microbial properties, particularly in the tantalite mine soils was investigated. The specific objectives of the study were to: (a) evaluate the effects of land use on soil microbial indices of the tantalite mine soils; (b) investigate the restorative effects of organic amendments on a Technosol; and (c) estimate the short-term N and P supply potential of the soil amendments in the soils. Fresh soils (0-20 cm) from an unmined native forest, two mine sites afforested with pine and eucalyptus forests (pine and eucalyptus Technosols), an arable land, and two cultivated Technosols (Kavumu and Kirengo Technosols) were analyzed for the physicochemical properties. Afterwards, a 28-day incubation (22oC) experiment was conducted followed by measurements of mineral N, soil microbial biomass C, N, P, and fungal ergosterol contents using standard methods. This was followed by a 12-week incubation study of the arable soil and the Kavumu Technosol amended with FYM, Canavalia and Tithonia biomass, and Markhamia leaf litter after which soil microbial properties were measured at 2, 8, and 12 weeks of incubation. Finally, two 4-week incubation experiments each were conducted in soils of the six sites to estimate (i) potential mineralizable N using a soil-sand mixture (1:1) amended with Canavalia and goat manure and (ii) P mineralization mixtures (1:1) of soil and anion exchange resins in bicarbonate form amended with Tithonia biomass and goat manure. In study one, afforestation increased soil organic carbon and total N contents in the pine and eucalyptus Technosols by 34-40% and 28-30%, respectively of that in the native forest soil. Consequently, the microbial biomass and activity followed a similar trend where the cultivated Technosols were inferior to the afforested ones. The microbial indices of the mine soils were constrained by soil acidity, dithionite-extractable Al, and low P availability. In study two, the amendments substantially increased C and N mineralization, microbial properties compared with non-amended soils. Canavalia biomass increased CO2 efflux by 340%, net N mineralization by 30-140%, and microbial biomass C and N by 240-600% and 240-380% (P < 0.01), respectively after four weeks of incubation compared with the non-amended soils. Tithonia biomass increased ergosterol content by roughly 240%. The Kavumu Technosol showed a high potential for quick restoration of its soil quality due to its major responses to the measured biological parameters. In study three, Canavalia biomass gave the highest mineralizable N (130 ��g g-1 soil, P < 0.01) in the Kavumu Technosol and the lowest in the native forest soil (-20 ��g g-1 soil). Conversely, the mineralizable N of goat manure was negative in all soils ranging from -2.5 ��g N g-1 to -7.7 ��g N g-1 soil except the native forest soil. However, the immobilization of goat manure N in the ���cultivated soils��� was 30-70% lower than in the ���forest soils��� signifying an imminent recovery of the amended soils from N immobilization. The mineralization of goat manure P was three-fold that of Tithonia, constituting 61-71% of total P applied. Phosphorus mineralization slightly decreased after four weeks of incubation due to sulfate competition as reflected in a negative correlation, which was steeper in the Tithonia treatment. In conclusion, each amendment used in this research played a unique role in C, N, and P mineralization and contributed substantially to microbial properties in the tantalite mine soils. Interestingly, the ���N immobilizers��� exhibited potentials for P release and soil organic carbon storage. Consequently, the combined use of the amendments in specific ratios, or co-composting prior to application is recommended to optimize nutrient release, microbial biomass dynamics and soil organic matter accrual. Transport of organic inputs seems more feasible for smallholder farmers who typically manage small field sizes. To reduce acidity in the soils, liming with wood ash was recommended to also improve P availability and enhance soil biological quality, even if it may only be possible on small areas. Further, afforestation with mixed-species of fast-growing eucalyptus and legume or indigenous tree species are suggested to restore tantalite mine wastelands. It is emphasized most of this research was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, which exclude interaction with environmental variables. Also fine fractions of the amendments were used compared with the usual practice of applying a mixture of predominantly coarser fractions. Therefore, the biological dynamics reported in the studies here may not entirely reflect those of farmers��� field conditions.