Farming Systems and Resilience Building in a Changing Climate On-Farm Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Cocoa Cultivation in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Resilience research has been applied to socioeconomic as well as for agroecological studies in the last 20 years. It provides a conceptual and methodological approach for a better understanding of interrelations between the performance of ecological and social systems. In the research area Alto Beni, Bolivia, the production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), is one of the main sources of income. Farmers in the region have formed producers’ associations to enhance organic cocoa cultivation and obtain fair prices since the 1980s. In cooperation with the long-term system comparisons by the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) in Alto Beni, aspects of the field trial are applied for the use in on-farm research: a comparison of soil fertility, biomass and crop diversity is combined with qualitative interviews and participatory observation methods. Fieldwork is carried out together with Bolivian students through the Swiss KFPE-programme Echanges Universitaires. For the system comparisons, four different land-use types were classified according to their ecological complexity during a preliminary study in 2009: successional agroforestry systems, simple agroforestry systems (both organically managed and certified), traditional systems and conventional monocultures. The study focuses on interrelations between different ways of cocoa cultivation, livelihoods and the related socio-cultural rationales behind them. In particular this second aspect is innovative as it allows to broaden the biophysical perspective to a more comprehensive evaluation with socio-ecological aspects thereby increasing the relevance of the agronomic field studies for development policy and practice. Moreover, such a socio-ecological baseline allows to assess the potential of organic agriculture regarding resilience-building face to socio-environmental stress factors. Among others, the results of the pre-study illustrate local farmers’ perceptions of climate change and the consequences for the different crop-systems: all interviewees mentioned rising temperatures and/or an extended dry season as negative impacts more with regard to their own working conditions than to their crops. This was the case in particular for conventional monocultures and in plots where slash-and-burn cultivation was practised whereas for organic agroforestry systems the advantage of working in the shade was stressed indicating that their relevance rises in the context of climate change.

The Intersection of Economics and Politics in a Small OPEC Country: the Case of Ecuador, 1990 - March 2014

Today, crude oil remains a vital resource all around the world. This non-renewable resource powers countries worldwide. Besides serving as an energy source, crude oil is also the most important component for different world economies, especially in developing countries. Ecuador, a small member of the OPEC oil cartel, presents a case where its economy is oil dependent. A great percentage of the country¿s GDP and government¿s budget comes from oil revenues. Ecuador has always been a primary exporter of raw materials. In the last centuries, the country experienced three important economic booms: cacao, bananas, and, ultimately, crude oil. In this sense, the country has not been able to fully industrialize and begin to export manufactured goods, i.e., Ecuador suffers from the Dutch disease. The latter has deterred Ecuador from achieving broad-based economic development. Given crude oil¿s importance for the Ecuadorian economy, the government has always tried to influence the oil industry in search of profits and benefits. Therefore, this thesis, explores the question: how and to what extent have political interventions affected the oil industry in Ecuador from 1990 until March 2014? In general, this thesis establishes an economic history context during the last twenty-four years, attempting to research how political interventions have shaped Ecuador¿s oil industry and economy. In the analysis, it covers a period where political instability prevailed, until Rafael Correa became president. The thesis examines Ecuador¿s participation in OPEC, trying to find explanations as to why the country voluntarily left the organization in 1992, only to rejoin in 2007 when Correa rose to power. During the ¿Revolución Ciudadana¿ period, the thesis researches reforms to the Law of Hydrocarbons, variations in the relations with other nations, the controversy surrounding the Yasuní-ITT oil block, and the ¿Refinería del Pacífico¿ construction. The thesis is an Industrial Organization detailed case study that analyzes, updates, and evaluates the intersection of economics and politics in Ecuador¿s crude oil industry during the last 24 years. In this sense I have consulted past theses, newspaper articles, books, and other published data about the petroleum industry, both from a global and Ecuadorian perspective. In addition to published sources, I was able to interview sociologists, public figures, history and economics academics, and other experts, accessing unique unpublished data about Ecuador¿s oil industry. I made an effort to collect information that shows the private and public side of the industry, i.e., from government-related and independent sources. I attempted to remain as objective as possible to make conclusions about the appropriate Industrial Organization policy for Ecuador¿s oil industry, addressing the issue from an economic, social, political, and environmental point of view. I found how Ecuador¿s political instability caused public policy to fail, molding the conduct and market structure of the crude oil industry. Throughout history, developed nations have benefited from low oil prices, but things shifted since oil prices began to rise, which is more beneficial for the developing nations that actually possess and produce the raw material. Nevertheless, Ecuador, a victim of the Dutch disease due to its heavy reliance on crude oil as a primary product, has not achieved broad-based development.

Los espacios portuarios : Un lugar de encuentro entre disciplinas

Tabla de contenidos: "Las villas nuevas" cantábricas en el marco de su primitiva organización territorial : Valles, alfoques, solares y linajes en los enclaves portuarios del litoral marítimo del reino de Castilla entre los siglos XII al XIV / Osvaldo Víctor Pereyra. El puerto Gaditano en el Inico del Ocaso de la Época Colonial [1810-1812] / Luis López Molina. Reflexiones sobre la incidencia del puerto en la vida de la ciudad de Montevideo / Arturo Ariel Bentancur. Los cargadores de cuero del Complejo Portuario Rioplatense / Maximiliano Camarda. El consulado de Buenos Aires y el quiebre de la Monarquía : Los préstamos y contribuciones de los comerciantes, 1808-1816 / Javier Kraselsky. Comercio, orden y derechos de propiedad de un puerto alternativo del Río de La Plata : La boca del Río Salado ebtre dos bloqueos [1838-1848] / Antonio Galarza. Entre el viento y el humo : Embarcaciones, puertos y tripulantes en la provincia de Buenos Aires en los primeros censos nacionales [1869-1914] / José Mateo, José Luis Nogueira. La cuestión del Muelle Nacional y reactivación de Arroyo Pareja / Gustavo Chalier. Génesis y desarrollo de la pesquería de camarón en el puerto de Mazatlán, 1949-1958 : El empresario como centro del engranaje productivo / Ulises Suárez Estavillo. Puertos y embarcaderos en la "Carrera de Paragua" (Siglo XVIII) / Isabel Paredes. La reactivación de los puertos del río Paraná en el discurso del desarrollismo antifrigerista, 1958-1976 / Miguel Angel De Marco. Redescubriendo la ruta hacia el norte : Del puerto de Buenos Aires a Potosí, en las postrimerías del siglo XVIII / María Claudia Errecart. Faenados a contravención : Decomisos de cueros en la Banda oriental durante 1784 y 1785 / Nicolás Biangardi. Fiscalidad en el Antiguo Régimen : Indagaciones en torno a la estructura fiscal del Virreinato del Río de La Plata. El caso de la Real Aduana de Buenos Aires [1776-1810] / María Evangelina Vaccani. La ruta del cacao : Circuito comercial de la élite pamplonesa, Virreinato de Nueva Granada, siglos XVIII-XIV / Lina Constanza Díaz Boada. El turismo como fenómeno económico, soail y cultural : Caso Mazatlán, México / Yasser Orlando Espinoza García, Héctor Manuel Pimienta Fernández. Delitos sexuales en el espacio portuario : Sexualidad y derecho en la encrucijada / Betina Clara Riva. La ciudad y el puerto : Transformaciones de áreas portuarias en desuso. El caso de puerto madero / Claudia Carut. Un Hada en La Boca : Imágenes post modernas de un puerto "inactivo! / Marcelo N. Weissel.

Bird observation and sampling in tropical agroforestry landscapes of the Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

We investigated the local bird community in Central Sulawesi (Indonesia), with focus on insectivorous species in the agroforestry landscapes adjacent to the Lore Lindu National Park. All study sites were situated at the northern tip of Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. After an initial mapping of the study area, we selected 15 smallholder cacao plantations as sites for our study in March 2010. These sides were mainly used for bird and bat exclosure experiments. All sited were situated along a local gradient (shade availability on each plantation) and a landscape gradient (distance to primary forest), which were independent from each other. In September 2010 and from February until June 2011, we assessed the bird community on our 15 study sites using monthly point count and mist netting sampling. Point count (20 minutes between 07 am and 10 am and in between the net checking hours) and mist netting surveys (12 hours, between 05:30 am and 17:30 pm) were conducted simultaneously but only once per month on each study site, to avoid habituation of the local bird community to our surveys. Further, point counts were conducted at least 100 m apart from the mist netting sites, to avoid potential disturbance between the two methods. We discarded all observations beyond 50 m (including those individuals that flew over the canopy) from the statistical analysis, as well as recaptures of individuals within identical mist netting rounds.

Incentives Embedded in Institutions: The Case of Share Contracts in Ghanaian Cocoa Production

Providing price incentives to farmers is usually considered essential for agricultural development. Although such incentives are important, regarding price as the sole explanatory factor is far from satisfactory in understanding the complex realities of agricultural production in Africa. By analyzing the share contracts widely practiced in Ghana, this article argues that local institutions such as land tenure systems and agrarian contracts provide strong incentives and disincentives for agricultural production. Based on data derived from fieldwork in the 1990s, the study analyzes two types of share contracts and the incentive structures embedded in them. The analysis reveals that farmers' investment behavior needs to be understood in terms of both short-term incentive to increase yield and long-term incentive to strengthen land rights. The study concludes that the role of price incentives in agricultural production needs to be reconsidered by placing it in wider incentive structures embedded in local institutions.

Estudio de distintas variedades de cacahuete en relación a su recolección mecánica.

Se consideran ocho variedades de cacahuete con objeto de establecer las que mejor se adaptan a la recolección mecánica, estudiando la fuerza de desprendimiento (f.d.) de los frutos, la resistencia de la cascara a la compresión y la adecuación a la trilla o separación mecánica de las vainas con una trilladora experimental. Se realizaron también ensayos de campo con dos modelos de arrancadoras y cosechadoras estableciéndose los niveles medios de perdidas y de daños.

Empleo de la espectroscopia VIS NIR para la identificación de trazas de cacahuete en productos alimentarios en polvo

En el mundo existen ciertos grupos de población que muestran una hipersensibilidad a determinados alimentos, y cuya ingestión accidental desencadena, una respuesta del tipo “shock” anafiláctico. Esto ha obligado a las empresas alimentarias a estudiar de forma exhaustiva la gestión del riesgo de todos sus productos. El cacahuete es uno de los principales alérgenos en la industria. La espectroscopia NIR se ha utilizado recientemente para analizar la cantidad total de aceite y ácido grasos en cacahuete intacto (Sudaram y colaboradores, 2012). El objetivo de este trabajo es estudiar métodos no destructivos basados en espectroscopia para la detección de trazas de cacahuete en alimentos en polvo, como complemento al método genético reacción en cadena de la polimerasa en tiempo real (Real Time -PCR) desarrollado por el grupo de investigación TRADETBIO de la UCM, en el marco de colaboración en el Campus de Excelencia Internacional Moncloa. Los materiales utilizados fueron cacahuetes de cinco variedades de origen geográfico distinto y sometidas a diferentes tratamientos, proporcionadas por el Instituto de Materiales de Referencia CE, así como leche en polvo, cacao, harina de trigo, y cacahuete de diferentes marcas comerciales. Para todos ellos, se adquirieron dos series de espectros: en el infrarrojo cercano NIR (896-1686 nm), y los extraídos de imágenes hiperespectrales HIS (400-1000nm). La espectroscopia VIS se mostró sensible a las diferencias en el cacahuete en cuanto a su origen y/o tratamiento, ya que inducen cambios en el color, siendo inviable la separación entre los cacahuetes blanqueados, la leche y la harina en esta región espectral. Las principales diferencias entre los cacahuetes y el resto de ingredientes alimentarios se han encontrado en el rango NIR, específicamente en las longitudes de onda de (1207-1210 nm), relacionadas con una región de absorción de los lípidos. El infrarrojo permite 100% de segregación de cualquier tipo de cacahuete respecto al resto de los ingredientes alimentarios. La espectroscopia NIR combinada con las técnicas de imagen (hiperespectral o multiespectral) podría por tanto, ser aplicado para detectar trazas de cacahuetes en alimentos en polvo, no influyendo su origen y/o tratamiento, ya que es capaz de separar cualquier cacahuete del resto de los ingredientes alimentarios. Este método podría ser una técnica de cribado previo al método PCR de elevado coste.

Tratado physico medico, de las virtudes, qualidades, provechos, uso, y abuso, del cafè, del the, del chocolate, y del tabaco /

Mode of access: Internet.

Cocoa, its cultivation and preparation.

On cover: Imperial institute series of handbooks to the commercial resources of the tropics. Dunstan.

Latin American agricultural products and commercial information.

Cover title.

Kaffee, Tee, Kakao und die übrigen narkotischen Aufgussgetränke /

Includes bibliographical references (p. [106]) and index.

The isolation, characterization, and application of WRKY genes as useful molecular markers in tropical trees

The improvement of tropical tree crops using conventional breeding methods faces challenges due to the length of time involved. Thus, like most crops, there is an effort to utilize molecular genetic markers in breeding programs to select for desirable agronomic traits. Known as marker assisted breeding or marker assisted selection, genetic markers associated with a phenotype of interest are used to screen and select material reducing the time necessary to evaluate candidates. As the focus of this research was improving disease resistance in tropical trees, the usefulness of the WRKY gene superfamily was investigated as candidates for generating useful molecular genetic markers. WRKY genes encode plant-specific transcriptional factors associated with regulating plants' responses to both biotic and abiotic stress. ^ One pair of degenerate primers amplified 48 WRKY gene fragments from three taxonomically distinct, economically important, tropical tree crop species: 18 from Theobroma cacao L., 21 from Cocos nucifera L. and 9 from Persea americana Mill. Several loci from each species were polymorphic because of single nucleotide substitutions present within a putative non-coding region of the loci. Capillary array electrophoresis-single strand conformational polymorphism (CAE-SSCP) mapped four WRKY loci onto a genetic linkage map of a T. cacao F2 population segregating for resistance to witches' broom disease. Additionally, PCR primers specific for four T. cacao loci successfully amplified WRKY loci from 15 members of the Byttneriae tribe. A method was devised to allow the reliable discrimination of alleles by CAE-SSCP using only the mobility assigned to the sample peaks. Once this method was validated, the diversity of three WRKY loci was evaluated in a germplasm collection of T. cacao . One locus displayed high diversity in the collection, with at least 18 alleles detected from mobility differences of the product peaks. The number of WRKY loci available within the genome, ease of isolation by degenerate PCR, codominant segregation demonstrated in the F2 population, and usefulness for screening germplasm collections and closely related wild species demonstrates that the WRKY superfamily of genes are excellent candidates for developing a number of genetic molecular markers for breeding purposes in tropical trees. ^

Bird predation experiments in tropical agroforestry landscapes of the Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

We performed bird predation experiments (dummy experiments), using artificial prey and bird community data to investigate the importance of predator diversity vs. predator identity in cacao agroforestry landscapes. All sample sites were situated at the northern tip of Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. After an initial mapping of the study area, we selected 15 smallholder cacao plantations as sites for our exclosure experiments in March 2010. For our predation experiment, we selected 10 (out of 15) study sites and 5 cacao trees per site for the application of artificial prey for birds (dummy caterpillars made of plasticine). Our study trees (numbered from 1 to 5 per site) were randomly chosen and we kept spacing of at least two unmanipulated cacao trees between two study trees to avoid clumped distribution. To quantify both daytime/diurnal predation and night-time/nocturnal predation (e.g. birds vs. bats), we applied 7 caterpillar dummies on all study trees and controlled them for predation marks in the early morning (05:00-06:00 am), in the evening (17:00-18:00 pm) and in the early morning on the next day (completing one survey round). In total, we performed four survey rounds per study site (in June and July 2011). The caterpillar dummies were always applied in the same order and on three different parts of each cacao study tree: One 'control dummy' (located on first branching of the cacao tree); 3 'branch dummies' (located on one main branch coming from first branching; 20-25 cm between single dummies) and 3 'leaf dummies' (3 medium aged cacao trees adjacent to main branch were selected and single dummies placed in the center of each cacao leaf). The different positions were chosen to control for different foraging modes of predators (e.g. branch gleaners versus leaf gleaners). During day- and nighttime surveys, we controlled if the dummy caterpillars were still present in their original position, if they were absent and could not be relocated on the ground or if they were fallen to the ground, but could still be recorded. Eaten dummies were counted as 1 mark usually, except for those dummies, where two or more different kind of arthropods had eaten parts of the dummy (2 marks or more). Other predation marks were added to this number. For each dummy, we counted the total number of different predation marks. We focused on predation marks that could be identified with certainty (based on preliminary observations and/or literature): marks of birds, rodents and snails. Finally, we analysed the relationship of bird predation marks and bird community parameters (abundance vs. diversity), as well as effects of local and landscape management on the avian predation success.

Contraprestaciones por los servicios financieros del Consulado de México y sus miembros: los fondos extraordinarios para la guerra contra Gran Bretaña, 1779-1783

Nueva España aportó la mayor parte de los recursos que sostuvieron a las fuerzas armadas españolas durante la guerra contra Gran Bretaña que se desarrolló en el Caribe entre 1779 y 1783. En el artículo se analizan las medidas a las que recurrieron las autoridades reales para obtener recursos extraordinarios del Consulado y varios mercaderes de la ciudad de México. Asimismo se exponen algunas de las contraprestaciones que negociaron a cambio de dichos servicios financieros y se plantean diversas hipótesis acerca de los motivos económicos, sociales y políticos que los llevaron a colaborar con el monarca, teniendo en cuenta los negocios que realizaban durante el conflicto bélico y la forma en que eran afectados por la reciente apertura comercial.

Alianza público - privada como una alternativa de desarrollo de agronegocios en la Región de San Martín - Perú : estudio de caso múltiple

El desarrollo de la agricultura continúa siendo uno de los temas centrales a nivel mundial para asegurar la seguridad alimentaria. Distintos organismos internacionales, vienen promoviendo que los gobiernos nacionales y empresas privadas aumenten la inversión en la agricultura, innovación y creación de espacios comunes entre el sector público-privado. En la región de San Martín las familias en su gran mayoría dependen de la agricultura como medio de subsistencia y generación de ingresos. En los últimos años se han venido desarrollando acciones colectivas entre el sector público, privado y cooperación internacional, para mejorar los niveles producción y articular la producción a los mercados internacionales. Como ejemplo de estos esfuerzos podemos mencionar las mesas técnicas por producto agroalimentario, las cuales se han dispersado por diferentes regiones de Perú. El objetivo de este presente trabajo fue identificar si las alianzas público-privadas fueron una alternativa para el desarrollo productivo y comercial de los sectores de cacao y sacha inchi en la región de San Martín. Para ello, se utilizó la metodología de Estudio de Caso Múltiple de la Mesa Técnica de Cacao y de Sacha Inchi, organizaciones que agrupan al sector público, privado y organizaciones de productores, y que trabajan con una visión colectiva. Las alianzas desarrolladas en la región de San Martín en los sectores de cacao y sacha inchi fueron en gran medida una alternativa para el desarrollo productivo y comercial, estas tuvieron un soporte de las variables del macroentorno. La influencia de las variables del macroentorno y la visión colectiva de los actores fue clave para la dinámica del negocio. Además, el éxito de las APP depende de la estabilidad de las variables del macroentorno y no solo de la acción colectiva de los actores que lo conforman. Las APP tuvieron un impacto positivo en la producción y comercialización de los productores, ya que contribuyen en aumentar la oferta productiva y el poder de negociación con los compradores. Se fundamenta porque los productores perciben que han mejorado sus ingresos económicos en los últimos años, principalmente en las zonas de mayor producción, eso se refleja en la dinámica económica en las zonas productoras y las inversiones que estos vienen realizando.