Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-beta signaling contributes to enhanced proliferation of hepatic stellate cells.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The peroxisome proliferator-activated nuclear receptors (PPAR-alpha, PPAR-beta, and PPAR-gamma), which modulate the expression of genes involved in energy homeostasis, cell cycle, and immune function, may play a role in hepatic stellate cell activation. Previous studies focused on the decreased expression of PPAR-gamma in hepatic stellate cell activation but did not investigate the expression and role of the PPAR-alpha and -beta isotypes. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression of the different PPARs during hepatic stellate cell activation in vitro and in situ and to analyze possible factors that might contribute to their expression. In a second part of the study, the effect of a PPAR-beta agonist on acute liver injury was evaluated. METHODS: The effects of PPAR isotype-specific ligands on hepatic stellate cell transition were evaluated by bromodeoxyuridine incorporation, gel shifts, immunoprecipitation, and use of antisense PPAR-beta RNA-expressing adenoviruses. Tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced PPAR-beta phosphorylation and expression was evaluated by metabolic labeling and by using specific P38 inhibitors. RESULTS: Hepatic stellate cells constitutively express high levels of PPAR-beta, which become further induced during culture activation and in vivo fibrogenesis. No significant expression of PPAR-alpha or -gamma was found. Stimulation of the P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway modulated the expression of PPAR-beta. Transcriptional activation of PPAR-beta by L165041 enhanced hepatic stellate cell proliferation. Treatment of rats with a single bolus of CCl(4) in combination with L165041 further enhanced the expression of fibrotic markers. CONCLUSIONS: PPAR-beta is an important signal-transducing factor contributing to hepatic stellate cell proliferation during acute and chronic liver inflammation.

Phosphorylation of the Na,K-ATPase alpha-subunit by protein kinase A and C in vitro and in intact cells. Identification of a novel motif for PKC-mediated phosphorylation.

Na,K-ATPase is a potential target for regulatory phosphorylation by protein kinase A and C (PKA and PKC). To identify the phosphorylation sites, we have mutated the alpha 1-subunit of Bufo marinus in a highly conservative PKA and in 20 different PKC consensus sequences. The mutants were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and their phosphorylation capacity tested in homogenates upon stimulation of PKA or PKC. While serine 943 (Ser-943) was identified as a unique target site for PKA, none of the PKC consensus serine or threonine residues are implicated in PKC phosphorylation. Controlled trypsinolysis of phosphorylated alpha-subunits of various purified enzyme preparations and of alpha/beta complexes from oocyte homogenates revealed that PKC phosphorylation was exclusively associated with the N terminus. A fusion protein containing the first 32 amino acids of the Bufo alpha-subunit was phosphorylated in vitro and serine and threonine residues (Thr-15 and Ser-16) in this region were identified by site-directed mutagenesis as the PKC phosphorylation sites. Finally, the Bufo alpha-subunit was phosphorylated by protein kinases in transfected COS-7 cells. In intact cells, PKA stimulation induced phosphorylation exclusively on Ser-943 and PKC stimulation mainly on Thr-15 and Ser-16, which are contained in a novel PKC phosphorylation motif.

n-3 PUFAs modulate T-cell activation via protein kinase C-alpha and -epsilon and the NF-kappaB signaling pathway.

We elucidated the mechanisms of action of two n-3 PUFAs, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in Jurkat T-cells. Both DHA and EPA were principally incorporated into phospholipids in the following order: phosphatidylcholine < phosphatidylethanolamine < phosphatidylinositol/phosphatidylserine. Furthermore, two isoforms of phospholipase A(2) (i.e., calcium-dependent and calcium-independent) were implicated in the release of DHA and EPA, respectively, during activation of these cells. The two fatty acids inhibited the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced plasma membrane translocation of protein kinase C (PKC)-alpha and -epsilon. The two n-3 PUFAs also inhibited the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and the transcription of the interleukin-2 (IL-2) gene in PMA-activated Jurkat T-cells. Together, these results demonstrate that DHA and EPA, being released by two isoforms of phospholipase A(2), modulate IL-2 gene expression by exerting their action on two PKC isoforms and NF-kappaB in Jurkat T-cells.

Regulation of endothelial cell integrin function and angiogenesis by COX-2, cAMP and Protein Kinase A.

Angiogenesis, the development of new blood vessels from preexisting vessels, is a key step in tumor growth, invasion and metastasis formation. Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis is considered as an attractive approach to suppress cancer progression and spreading. Adhesion receptors of the integrin family promote tumor angiogenesis by mediating cell migration, proliferation and survival of angiogenic endothelial cells. Integrins up regulated and highly expressed on neovascular endothelial cells, such as alphaVbeta3 and alpha5beta1, have been considered as relevant targets for anti-angiogenic therapies. Small molecular integrin antagonists or blocking antibodies suppress angiogenesis and tumor progression in many animal models, and some of them are currently being tested in cancer clinical trials as anti-angiogenic agents. COX-2 inhibitors exert anti-cancer effects, at least in part, by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis. We have recently shown that COX-2 inhibitors suppress endothelial cell migration and angiogenesis by preventing alphaVbeta3-mediated and cAMP/PKA-dependent activation of the small GTPases Rac and Cdc42. Here we will review the evidence for the involvement of vascular integrins in mediating angiogenesis and the role of COX-2 metabolites in modulating the cAMP/Protein Kinase A pathway and alphaVbeta3-dependent Rac activation in endothelial cells.

Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine production in adipocytes by lowering nuclear factor-kappaB activity via extracellular signal-related kinase 1/2.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic activation of the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) in white adipose tissue leads to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are involved in the development of insulin resistance. It is presently unknown whether peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) beta/delta activation prevents inflammation in adipocytes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS AND RESULTS: First, we examined whether the PPARbeta/delta agonist GW501516 prevents lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine production in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Treatment with GW501516 blocked LPS-induced IL-6 expression and secretion by adipocytes and the subsequent activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3)-Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) pathway. This effect was associated with the capacity of GW501516 to impede LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation. Second, in in vivo studies, white adipose tissue from Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats, compared with that of lean rats, showed reduced PPARbeta/delta expression and PPAR DNA-binding activity, which was accompanied by enhanced IL-6 expression and NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity. Furthermore, IL-6 expression and NF-kappaB DNA-binding activity was higher in white adipose tissue from PPARbeta/delta-null mice than in wild-type mice. Because mitogen-activated protein kinase-extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK)1/2 (MEK1/2) is involved in LPS-induced NF-kappaB activation in adipocytes, we explored whether PPARbeta/delta prevented NF-kappaB activation by inhibiting this pathway. Interestingly, GW501516 prevented ERK1/2 phosphorylation by LPS. Furthermore, white adipose tissue from animal showing constitutively increased NF-kappaB activity, such as ZDF rats and PPARbeta/delta-null mice, also showed enhanced phospho-ERK1/2 levels. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that activation of PPARbeta/delta inhibits enhanced cytokine production in adipocytes by preventing NF-kappaB activation via ERK1/2, an effect that may help prevent insulin resistance.

Hepatitis B Virus e Antigen Physically Associates With Receptor-Interacting Serine/Threonine Protein Kinase 2 and Regulates IL-6 Gene Expression.

We previously reported that hepatitis B virus (HBV) e antigen (HBeAg) inhibits production of interleukin 6 by suppressing NF-κB activation. NF-κB is known to be activated through receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 2 (RIPK2), and we examined the mechanisms of interleukin 6 regulation by HBeAg. HBeAg inhibits RIPK2 expression and interacts with RIPK2, which may represent 2 mechanisms through which HBeAg blocks nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 1 ligand-induced NF-κB activation in HepG2 cells. Our findings identified novel molecular mechanisms whereby HBeAg modulates intracellular signaling pathways by targeting RIPK2, supporting the concept that HBeAg could impair both innate and adaptive immune responses to promote chronic HBV infection.

MAP/ERK kinase kinase 1 (MEKK1) mediates transcriptional repression by interacting with polycystic kidney disease-1 (PKD1) promoter-bound p53 tumor suppressor protein.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades regulate a wide variety of cellular processes that ultimately depend on changes in gene expression. We have found a novel mechanism whereby one of the key MAP3 kinases, Mekk1, regulates transcriptional activity through an interaction with p53. The tumor suppressor protein p53 down-regulates a number of genes, including the gene most frequently mutated in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (PKD1). We have discovered that Mekk1 translocates to the nucleus and acts as a co-repressor with p53 to down-regulate PKD1 transcriptional activity. This repression does not require Mekk1 kinase activity, excluding the need for an Mekk1 phosphorylation cascade. However, this PKD1 repression can also be induced by the stress-pathway stimuli, including TNFα, suggesting that Mekk1 activation induces both JNK-dependent and JNK-independent pathways that target the PKD1 gene. An Mekk1-p53 interaction at the PKD1 promoter suggests a new mechanism by which abnormally elevated stress-pathway stimuli might directly down-regulate the PKD1 gene, possibly causing haploinsufficiency and cyst formation.

LKB1 regulates polarity remodeling and adherens junction formation in the Drosophila eye.

The serine-threonine kinase LKB1 regulates cell polarity from Caenorhabditis elegans to man. Loss of lkb1 leads to a cancer predisposition, known as Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome. Biochemical analysis indicates that LKB1 can phosphorylate and activate a family of AMPK- like kinases, however, the precise contribution of these kinases to the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is still unclear. Recent studies propose that LKB1 acts primarily through the AMP kinase to establish and/or maintain cell polarity. To determine whether this simple model of how LKB1 regulates cell polarity has relevance to complex tissues, we examined lkb1 mutants in the Drosophila eye. We show that adherens junctions expand and apical, junctional, and basolateral domains mix in lkb1 mutants. Surprisingly, we find LKB1 does not act primarily through AMPK to regulate cell polarity in the retina. Unlike lkb1 mutants, ampk retinas do not show elongated rhabdomeres or expansion of apical and junctional markers into the basolateral domain. In addition, nutrient deprivation does not reveal a more dramatic polarity phenotype in lkb1 photoreceptors. These data suggest that AMPK is not the primary target of LKB1 during eye development. Instead, we find that a number of other AMPK-like kinase, such as SIK, NUAK, Par-1, KP78a, and KP78b show phenotypes similar to weak lkb1 loss of function in the eye. These data suggest that in complex tissues, LKB1 acts on an array of targets to regulate cell polarity.

Blue light activates a specific protein kinase in higher plants.

Blue light mediates the phosphorylation of a membrane protein in seedlings from several plant species. When crude microsomal membrane proteins from dark-grown pea (Pisum sativum L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.), Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana L.), or tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) stem segments, or from maize (Zea mays L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oat (Avena sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), or sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) coleoptiles are illuminated and incubated in vitro with [gamma-(32)P]ATP, a protein of apparent molecular mass from 114 to 130 kD is rapidly phosphorylated. Hence, this system is probably ubiquitous in higher plants. Solubilized maize membranes exposed to blue light and added to unirradiated solubilized maize membranes show a higher level of phosphorylation of the light-affected protein than irradiated membrane proteins alone, suggesting that an unirradiated substrate is phosphorylated by a light-activated kinase. This finding is further demonstrated with membrane proteins from two different species, where the phosphorylated proteins are of different sizes and, hence, unambiguously distinguishable on gel electrophoresis. When solubilized membrane proteins from one species are irradiated and added to unirradiated membrane proteins from another species, the unirradiated protein becomes phosphorylated. These experiments indicate that the irradiated fraction can store the light signal for subsequent phosphorylation in the dark. They also support the hypothesis that light activates a specific kinase and that the systems share a close functional homology among different higher plants.

Characterization of the phosphorylation sites involved in G protein-coupled receptor kinase- and protein kinase C-mediated desensitization of the alpha1B-adrenergic receptor.

Catecholamines as well as phorbol esters can induce the phosphorylation and desensitization of the alpha1B-adrenergic receptor (alpha1BAR). In this study, phosphoamino acid analysis of the phosphorylated alpha1BAR revealed that both epinephrine- and phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation predominantly occurs at serine residues of the receptor. The findings obtained with receptor mutants in which portions of the C-tail were truncated or deleted indicated that a region of 21 amino acids (393-413) of the carboxyl terminus including seven serines contains the main phosphorylation sites involved in agonist- as well as phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation and desensitization of the alpha1BAR. To identify the serines invoved in agonist- versus phorbol ester-dependent regulation of the receptor, two different strategies were adopted, the seven serines were either substituted with alanine or reintroduced into a mutant lacking all of them. Our findings indicate that Ser394 and Ser400 were phosphorylated following phorbol ester-induced activation of protein kinase C, whereas Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410 were phosphorylated upon stimulation of the alpha1BAR with epinephrine. The observation that overexpression of G protein-coupled kinase 2 (GRK2) could increase agonist-induced phosphorylation of Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410, strongly suggests that these serines are the phosphorylation sites of the alpha1BAR for kinases of the GRK family. Phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation of the Ser394 and Ser400 as well as GRK2-mediated phosphorylation of the Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410, resulted in the desensitization of alpha1BAR-mediated inositol phosphate response. This study provides generalities about the biochemical mechanisms underlying homologous and heterologous desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors linked to the activation of phospholipase C.

Regulation of the memory T cell development and islet beta-cell survival by DAPK-related apoptosis-inducing protein kinase 2 (Drak2)

Drak2 est un membre de la famille des protéines associées à la mort et c’est une sérine/thréonine kinase. Chez les souris mutantes nulles Drak2, les cellules T ne présentent aucune défectuosité apparente en apoptose induite par activation, après stimulation avec anti-CD3 et anti-CD28, mais ont un seuil de stimulation réduit, comparées aux cellules T de type sauvage (TS). Dans notre étude, l’analyse d’hybridation in situ a révélé que l’expression de Drak2 est ubiquiste au stade de la mi-gestation chez les embryons, suivie d’une expression plus focale dans les divers organes pendant la période périnatale et l’âge adulte, notamment dans le thymus, la rate, les ganglions lymphatiques, le cervelet, les noyaux suprachiasmatiques, la glande pituitaire, les lobes olfactifs, la médullaire surrénale, l’estomac, la peau et les testicules. Nous avons créé des souris transgéniques (Tg) Drak2 en utilisant le promoteur humain beta-actine. Ces souris Tg montraient des ratios normaux entre cellules T versus B et entre cellules CD4 versus CD8, mais leur cellularité et leur poids spléniques étaient inférieurs comparé aux souris de type sauvage. Après activation TCR, la réponse proliférative des cellules T Tg Drak2 était normale, même si leur production d’interleukine (IL)-2 et IL-4 mais non d’interféron-r était augmentée. Les cellules T Tg Drak2 activées ont démontré une apoptose significativement accrue en présence d’IL-2 exogène. Au niveau moléculaire, les cellules T Tg Drak2 ont manifesté une augmentation moins élevée des facteurs anti-apoptotiques durant l’activation; un tel changement a probablement rendu les cellules vulnérables aux attaques subséquentes d’IL-2. L’apoptose compromise dans les cellulesT Tg Drak2 a été associée à un nombre réduit de cellules T ayant le phénotype des cellules mémoires (CD62Llo) et avec des réactions secondaires réprimées des cellules T dans l’hypersensibilité de type différé. Ces résultats démontrent que Drak2 s’exprime dans le compartiment des cellules T mais n’est pas spécifique aux cellules T; et aussi qu’il joue des rôles déterminants dans l’apoptose des cellules T et dans le développement des cellules mémoires T. En outre, nous avons recherché le rôle de Drak2 dans la survie des cellules beta et le diabète. L’ARNm et la protéine Drak2 ont été rapidement induits dans les cellules beta de l’îlot après stimulation exogène par les cytokines inflammatoires ou les acides gras libres et qui est présente de façon endogène dans le diabète, qu’il soit de type 1 ou de type 2. La régulation positive de Drak2 a été accompagnée d’une apoptose accrue des cellules beta. L’apoptose des cellules beta provoquée par les stimuli en question a été inhibée par la chute de Drak2 en utilisant petit ARNi. Inversement, la surexpression de Drak2 Tg a mené à l’apoptose aggravée des cellules beta déclenchée par les stimuli. La surexpression de Drak2 dans les îlots a compromis l’augmentation des facteurs anti-apoptotiques, tels que Bcl-2, Bcl-xL et Flip, sur stimulation par la cytokine et les acides gras libres. De plus, les expériences in vivo ont démontré que les souris Tg Drak2 étaient sujettes au diabète de type 1 dans un modèle de diabète provoqué par de petites doses multiples de streptozotocine et qu’elles étaient aussi sujettes au diabète de type 2 dans un modèle d’obésité induite par la diète. Nos données montrent que Drak2 est défavorable à la survie des cellules beta. Nous avons aussi étudié la voie de transmission de Drak2. Nous avons trouvé que Drak2 purifiée pouvait phosphoryler p70S6 kinase dans une analyse kinase in vitro. Lasurexpression de Drak2 dans les cellules NIT-1 a entraîné l’augmentation de la phosphorylasation p70S6 kinase tandis que l’abaissement de Drak2 dans ces cellules a réduit la phosphorylation. Ces recherches mécanistes ont prouvé que p70S6 kinase était véritablement un substrat de Drak2 in vitro et in vivo. Cette étude a découvert les fonctions importantes de Drak2 dans l’homéostasie des cellules T et le diabète. Nous avons prouvé que p70S6 kinase était un substrat de Drak2. Nos résultats ont approfondi nos connaissances de Drak2 à l’intérieur des systèmes immunitaire et endocrinien. Certaines de nos conclusions, comme les rôles de Drak2 dans le développement des cellules mémoires T et la survie des cellules beta pourraient être explorées pour des applications cliniques dans les domaines de la transplantation et du diabète.

Structural insights into the allosteric activation mechanism of cGMP-dependent protein kinase I

Cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) is a key transducer in the NO-cGMP signaling pathway. In this line, PKG has been considered an important drug target for treating hypertensive cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. However, the investigation of PKG’s allosteric activation mechanism has been hampered by a lack of structural information. One of the fundamental questions on the cGMP-dependent activation of PKG is how the enzyme can distinguish cGMP over cAMP and selectively respond to cGMP. To ensure proper signaling, PKG must have developed unique features to ensure its activation upon the right activation signal. In this thesis, the cGMP-selective activation mechanism of PKG was studied through determining crystal structures of three truncated constructs of the regulatory domain [CNB-A (92-227), CNB-B (271-369), and CNB-A/B (92-351)] of PKG Iβ in the absence or presence of cyclic nucleotides. Herein, two individual CNB domain structures with biochemical data revealed that the C-terminal CNB domain (CNB-B) is responsible for cGMP selectivity, while the N-terminal CNB-domain (CNB-A) has a higher binding affinity for both cGMP and cAMP without showing any selectivity. Based on these crystal structures, mutagenesis studies were performed in which the critical residues for cyclic nucleotide selectivity and activation were identified. Furthermore, we discovered that the conformational changes of the C-terminal helix of the CNB-B that bridges between the regulatory and catalytic domains including the hydrophobic capping interaction are crucial for PKG activation. In addition, to observe the global conformation of the activated R-domain, I solved a co-crystal structure of the CNB-A/B with cGMP. Although a monomeric construct was crystallized, the structure displays a dimer. Strikingly, the CNB-A domain and its bound cGMP provide a key interface for this dimeric interaction. Using small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), the existence of the cGMP-mediated dimeric interface within the CNB domains was confirmed. Furthermore, measuring cGMP-binding affinities (EC50) of the dimeric interface mutants as well as determining activation constants (Ka) revealed that the interface formation is important for PKG activation. To conclude, this thesis study provides a new mechanistic insight in PKG activation along with a newly found interface that can be targeted for designing PKG-specific activity modulators.

Epidermal growth factor-stimulated extravillous cytotrophoblast motility is mediated by the activation of PI3-K, Akt and both p38 and p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinases

BACKGROUND: Trophoblast invasion is a temporally and spatially regulated scheme of events that can dictate pregnancy outcome. Evidence suggests that the potent mitogen epidermal growth factor (EGF) regulates cytotrophoblast (CTB) differentiation and invasion during early pregnancy. METHODS AND RESULTS: In the present study, the first trimester extravillous CTB cell line SGHPL-4 was used to investigate the signalling pathways involved in the motile component of EGF-mediated CTB migration/invasion. EGF induced the phosphorylation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K)-dependent proteins, Akt and GSK-3β as well as both p42/44 MAPK and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). EGF-stimulated motility was significantly reduced following the inhibition of PI3-K (P < 0.001), Akt (P < 0.01) and both p42/44 MAPK (P < 0.001) and p38 MAPKs (P < 0.001) but not the inhibition of GSK-3β. Further analysis indicated that the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB 203580 inhibited EGF-stimulated phosphorylation of Akt on serine 473, which may be responsible for the effect SB 203580 has on CTB motility. Although Akt activation leads to GSK-3β phosphorylation and the subsequent expression of β-catenin, activation of this pathway by 1-azakenpaullone was insufficient to stimulate the motile phenotype. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate a role for PI3-K, p42/44 MAPK and p38 MAPK in the stimulation of CTB cell motility by EGF, however activation of β-catenin alone was insufficient to stimulate cell motility.

Induction of heme oxygenase 1 by moderately oxidized low-density lipoproteins in human vascular smooth muscle cells: role of mitogen-activated protein kinases and Nrf2

Oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDL) play a central role in atherogenesis and induce expression of the antioxidant stress protein heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1). In the present study we investigated induction of HO-1 and adaptive increases in reduced glutathione (GSH) in human aortic smooth muscle cells (SMC) in response to moderately oxidized LDL (moxLDL, 100 mu g protein/ml, 24 h), a species containing high levels of lipid hydroperoxides. Expression and activity of HO-1 and GSH levels were elevated to a greater extent by moxLDL than highly oxidized LDL but unaffected by native or acetylated LDL. Inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC) or mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) p38(MAPK) and MEK or c-jun-NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) significantly attenuated induction of HO-1. Phosphorylation of p38(MAPK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), or JNK and nuclear translocation of the transcription factor Nrf2 were enhanced following acute exposure of SMC to rnoxLDL (100 mu g proteiri/ml, 1-2 h). Pretreatment of SMC with the antioxidant vitamin C (100 mu M, 24 h) attenuated the induction of HO-1 by moxLDL. Native and oxidized LDL did not alter basal levels of intracellular ATP, mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity, or expression of the lectin-like oxidized LDL receptor (LOX-1) in SMC. These findings demonstrate for the first time that activation of PKC, p38(MAPK), JNK, ERK1/2, and Nrf2 by oxidized LDL in human SMC leads to HO-1 induction, constituting an adaptive response against oxidative injury that can be ameliorated by vitamin C. (C) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Protein kinase C down-regulation, and not transient activation, correlates with melanocyte growth

The nontumorigenic, immortal line of murine melanocytes, Mel-ab, requires the continual presence of biologically active phorbol esters for growth (R. E. Wilson et al., Cancer Res., 49: 711–716, 1989). Comparable treatments of B16 murine melanoma cells result in partial inhibition of cell proliferation. The role of protein kinase C (PKC) in the modulation of growth of cells from these two melanocytic cell lines has been investigated. Significant levels of PKC were present in quiescent Mel-ab cells as determined by Western blotting, whereas no immunoreactive protein was detected in cell extracts from either proliferating Mel-ab or B16.F1 cells. Phosphorylation of a Mr 80,000 protein, which by one- and two-dimensional gel analysis comigrated with the known Mr 80,000 protein substrate of PKC in fibroblasts, was induced in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-stimulated quiescent Mel-ab cells but not in proliferating Mel-ab cells or B16.F1 melanoma cells. Direct measurement of PKC activity in these cells demonstrated a 10-fold greater level of activity in quiescent Mel-ab cells (262 ± 50 pmol/min/mg SD) compared with growing cells (22.8 ± 11.8 pmol/min/mg SD). An intermediate level of activity was detected in proliferating B16.F1 melanoma cells (148.5 ± 20.4 pmol/min/mg SD). The subcellular distribution of PKC was dependent upon the growth state of the cells such that quiescent Mel-ab cells displayed a higher level of activity in the cytosol, whereas growing Melab cells displayed greater activity in the particulate fraction. Like many other transformed lines, B16.F1 melanoma cells constitutively expressed the majority of enzyme activity in the particulate fraction. Measurement of [3H]phorbol ester binding in intact cells paralleled the PKC activation data such that quiescent Mel-ab cells displayed binding of 1612 ± 147 cpm/106 cells, whereas proliferating Mel-ab and B16.F1 melanoma cells displayed binding of 652 ± 28 and 947 ± 81 cpm/106 cells, respectively. Membrane-permeant diacylglycerol analogues, which activated but did not down-regulate PKC, were devoid of growth-stimulating effects on melanocytes, even in the presence of the specific diacylglycerol kinase inhibitor, R59022. Together, these data show that PKC down-regulation, and not activation, correlates with the growth of melanocytes in culture.