El caso Sarayaku: una lucha por el ambiente y los derechos humanos en la Amazonía ecuatoriana

El 26 de julio de 1996, el Estado Ecuatoriano concesionó a favor de la Compañía General de Combustibles (CGC) el denominado bloque petrolero 23 que comprende una extensión de 200.000 hectáreas en la amazonía ecuatoriana, un 65% de las cuales afectan al territorio de Sarayaku. Actualmente la petrolera estadounidense Burlington Resources es propietaria del 50% de los derechos en el Bloque 23. Esta concesión fue efectuada sin que se haya realizado ningún proceso jurídico de información, consulta o pedido de consentimiento al Pueblo de Sarayaku para la realización de actividades petroleras en el territorio de su propiedad, pese a que dicho proceso constituye un estándar obligatorio que debe cumplir de acuerdo a la legislación ambiental nacional y al Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos.

Procesos: revista ecuatoriana de historia. 16 (S0LO LIBROS/Reseñas)

Presenta las reseñas de los libros siguientes: JENNY LONDOÑO, ENTRE LA SUMISIÓN Y LA RESISTENCIA. LAS MUJERES EN LA REAL AUDIENCIA, EDICIONES ABYA-YALA, QUITO, 1997, 306 PP. -- PILAR PONCE LEIVA, CERTEZAS ANTE LA INCERTIDUMBRE: ÉLITE Y CABILDO DE QUITO EN EL SIGLO XVII, ABYA-YALA, QUITO, 1998, 512 PP. -- FERNANDO SANTOS; FREDERICA BARCLAY, EDITORES, GUÍA ETNOGRÁFICA DE LA ALTA AMAZONIA, VOL. III, INSTITUTO SMITHSONIAN DE INVESTIGACIONES TROPICALES, IFEA, ABYA-YALA, QUITO, 1998, 450 PP. -- SILVIA ÁLVAREZ, DE HUANCAVILCAS A COMUNEROS. RELACIONES INTERÉTNICAS EN LA PENÍNSULA DE SANTA ELEN~ ECUADOR, ABYA-YALA/CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS ARQUEOLÓGICOS y ANTROPOLÓGICOS DE LA ESPOL, QUITO, 1999, 505 PP. -- PATRICIO YCAZA, SOCIEDAD DEPORTIVO QUITO: LA ACADEMIA DEL FÚTBOL, ENFOQUE PUBLICIDAD-COMISIÓN DE RELACIONES PÚBLICAS y SOCIOS DE S. D. QUITO, QUITO, 1996, 136 PP. -- CÉSAR MONTÚFAR, LA RECONSTRUCCIÓN NEOLlBERAL: FEBRES CORDERO O LA ESTATlZACIÓN DEL NEOLIBERALlSMO EN EL ECUADOR 1984-1988, ABYA-YALA/UASB, QUITO, 2001, 170 PP.

Los mercados internacionales para plantas medicinales de la Amazonía peruana: situación actual y tendencias

Este trabajo de investigación, pone de relieve el papel fundamental que la Amazonia como Bosque Húmedo Tropical desempeña y especialmente la Biodiversidad que en ella se encuentra, especialmente los Productos Forestales No Maderables. No obstante a tener una riqueza incalculable para ser explotada y manejada sosteniblemente, no reciben la atención suficiente de parte de los Gestores de la Política tanto Ambiental como de acceso a los Recursos Naturales. La Amazonia considerada como un Bosque Tropical, alberga una variedad de Productos No Maderables, cuyo valor es inconmensurable. En los Países en Desarrollo, especialmente el Perú, existen más de 80,000 especies de plantas conocidas y que pueden ser explotadas y comercializadas para muchos usos, sin embargo no se le están dando la debida importancia, lo que ayudaría a muchos pobladores de la Zona Amazónica a aliviar sus problemas de subsistencia, generación de empleo e ingresos, comercialización sostenible y una mejor distribución de los beneficios. Hay evidencia la presencia de plantas medicinales en la Producción de Productos Farmacéuticos a nivel Mundial, y que por lo tanto existe demanda de plantas con principios activos; tenemos a los Estados Unidos, Comunidad Europea, Japón entre otros. El Mercado se encuentra en expansión y el Perú tendría la oportunidad de abastecer esta demanda creciente, siempre y cuando exista voluntad e integración de los Organismos encargados y responsables, para que este tesoro escondido, no sea mal explotado, como ha ocurrido con la Quina, oriunda del Perú, y que hoy el 90 % es manejada por Indonesia. De otro lado, se sabe, que actualmente a nivel mundial, se discute mucho sobre los alcances y el acceso de los recursos genéticos, tanto multilateralmente, como a nivel Andino, los convenios, están allí, para ser discutidos, desde el Convenio de Diversidad Biológica, hasta los Convenios y Leyes Regionales y Locales; lo que queda claro es que, los recursos diversos de la Amazonia, son una alternativa de Desarrollo Sostenible, siempre y cuando se emplee las estrategias adecuadas y con Leyes firmes y Apertura de Liberalización de Mercado.

Política ambiental del gobierno de Lula: el caso de la Amazonía (Tema Central)

El tema del calentamiento global y sus consecuencias pone en el orden del día la discusión sobre la protección y el control de la región amazónica al mismo tiempo que cuestiona la posibilidad del desarrollo sostenible bajo el capitalismo. En Brasil, Lula defiende la Amazonía en palabras, pero en los hechos impulsa una política económica que tiene como prioridad la entrega de los recursos naturales al capital nacional e internacional. ¿A quién interesa la conservación de la Amazonía brasileña?

Vigencia y garantía de los derechos en las políticas petroleras en el año 2011

Evidencia las consecuencias de la aplicación de la política petrolera impulsada por la reforma de la Ley de Hidrocarburos que incluye la entrega de campos maduros a empresas privadas; la décima ronda de licitaciones para entregar campos marginales y la décimo primera ronda de licitaciones para concesionar los bloques del sur de la Amazonía, lo que conlleva violaciones de los derechos de las poblaciones que residen en los campos de explotación y amenazan a nuevas poblaciones. Estas poblaciones, principalmente los pueblos indígenas desarrollan luchas de resistencia en defensa de su territorio y su cultura.

Seed survival of four tropical tree species in response to environment

The response of seed survival to storage duration and environment (temperature and moisture content) in the four tropical tree species: Cedrela odorata L., Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn., Dalbergia spruceana Benth. and Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandwith. from Amazonia conformed to the seed viability equation of Ellis and Roberts. Estimates of the seed viability constants to calculate seed longevity in these species are provided.

A climate change risk analysis for world ecosystems

We quantify the risks of climate-induced changes in key ecosystem processes during the 21st century by forcing a dynamic global vegetation model with multiple scenarios from 16 climate models and mapping the proportions of model runs showing forest/nonforest shifts or exceedance of natural variability in wildfire frequency and freshwater supply. Our analysis does not assign probabilities to scenarios or weights to models. Instead, we consider distribution of outcomes within three sets of model runs grouped by the amount of global warming they simulate: <2°C (including simulations in which atmospheric composition is held constant, i.e., in which the only climate change is due to greenhouse gases already emitted), 2–3°C, and >3°C. High risk of forest loss is shown for Eurasia, eastern China, Canada, Central America, and Amazonia, with forest extensions into the Arctic and semiarid savannas; more frequent wildfire in Amazonia, the far north, and many semiarid regions; more runoff north of 50°N and in tropical Africa and northwestern South America; and less runoff in West Africa, Central America, southern Europe, and the eastern U.S. Substantially larger areas are affected for global warming >3°C than for <2°C; some features appear only at higher warming levels. A land carbon sink of ≈1 Pg of C per yr is simulated for the late 20th century, but for >3°C this sink converts to a carbon source during the 21st century (implying a positive climate feedback) in 44% of cases. The risks continue increasing over the following 200 years, even with atmospheric composition held constant.

Fire-free land use in pre-1492 Amazonian savannas

The nature and scale of pre-Columbian land use and the consequences of the 1492 “Columbian Encounter” (CE) on Amazonia are among the more debated topics in New World archaeology and paleoecology. However, pre-Columbian human impact in Amazonian savannas remains poorly understood. Most paleoecological studies have been conducted in neotropical forest contexts. Of studies done in Amazonian savannas, none has the temporal resolution needed to detect changes induced by either climate or humans before and after A.D. 1492, and only a few closely integrate paleoecological and archaeological data. We report a high-resolution 2,150-y paleoecological record from a French Guianan coastal savanna that forces reconsideration of how pre-Columbian savanna peoples practiced raised-field agriculture and how the CE impacted these societies and environments. Our combined pollen, phytolith, and charcoal analyses reveal unexpectedly low levels of biomass burning associated with pre-A.D. 1492 savanna raised-field agriculture and a sharp increase in fires following the arrival of Europeans. We show that pre-Columbian raised-field farmers limited burning to improve agricultural production, contrasting with extensive use of fire in pre-Columbian tropical forest and Central American savanna environments, as well as in present-day savannas. The charcoal record indicates that extensive fires in the seasonally flooded savannas of French Guiana are a post-Columbian phenomenon, postdating the collapse of indigenous populations. The discovery that pre-Columbian farmers practiced fire-free savanna management calls into question the widely held assumption that pre-Columbian Amazonian farmers pervasively used fire to manage and alter ecosystems and offers fresh perspectives on an emerging alternative approach to savanna land use and conservation that can help reduce carbon emissions.

Impact of a drier Early-Mid-Holocene climate upon Amazonian forests

This paper uses a palaeoecological approach to examine the impact of drier climatic conditions of the Early-Mid-Holocene (ca 8000-4000 years ago) upon Amazonia's forests and their fire regimes. Palaeovegetation (pollen data) and palaeofire (charcoal) records are synthesized from 20 sites within the present tropical forest biome, and the underlying causes of any emergent patterns or changes are explored by reference to independent palaeoclimate data and present-day patterns of precipitation, forest cover and fire activity across Amazonia. During the Early-Mid-Holocene, Andean cloud forest taxa were replaced by lowland tree taxa as the cloud base rose while lowland ecotonal areas, which are presently covered by evergreen rainforest, were instead dominated by savannahs and/or semi-deciduous dry forests. Elsewhere in the Amazon Basin there is considerable spatial and temporal variation in patterns of vegetation disturbance and fire, which probably reflects the complex heterogeneous patterns in precipitation and seasonality across the basin, and the interactions between climate change, drought- and fire susceptibility of the forests, and Palaeo-Indian land use. Our analysis shows that the forest biome in most parts of Amazonia appears to have been remarkably resilient to climatic conditions significantly drier than those of today, despite widespread evidence of forest burning. Only in ecotonal areas is there evidence of biome replacement in the Holocene. From this palaeoecological perspective, we argue against the Amazon forest 'dieback' scenario simulated for the future.

Committed terrestrial ecosystem changes due to climate change

Targets for stabilizing climate change are often based on considerations of the impacts of different levels of global warming, usually assessing the time of reaching a particular level of warming. However, some aspects of the Earth system, such as global mean temperatures1 and sea level rise due to thermal expansion2 or the melting of large ice sheets3, continue to respond long after the stabilization of radiative forcing. Here we use a coupled climate–vegetation model to show that in turn the terrestrial biosphere shows significant inertia in its response to climate change. We demonstrate that the global terrestrial biosphere can continue to change for decades after climate stabilization. We suggest that ecosystems can be committed to long-term change long before any response is observable: for example, we find that the risk of significant loss of forest cover in Amazonia rises rapidly for a global mean temperature rise above 2 °C. We conclude that such committed ecosystem changes must be considered in the definition of dangerous climate change, and subsequent policy development to avoid it.

Pre-Columbian land use in the ring-ditch region of the Bolivian Amazon

The nature and extent of pre-Columbian (pre-1492 AD) human impact in Amazonia is a contentious issue. The Bolivian Amazon has yielded some of the most impressive evidence for large and complex pre-Columbian societies in the Amazon basin, yet there remains relatively little data concerning the land use of these societies over time. Palaeoecology, when integrated with archaeological data, has the potential to fill these gaps in our knowledge. We present a 6,000-year record of anthropogenic burning, agriculture and vegetation change, from an oxbow lake located adjacent to a pre-Columbian ring-ditch in north-east Bolivia (13°15’44” S, 63°42’37” W). Human occupation around the lake site is inferred from pollen and phytoliths of maize (Zea mays L.) and macroscopic charcoal evidence of anthropogenic burning. First occupation around the lake was radiocarbon dated to ~2500 years BP. The persistence of maize in the record from ~1850 BP suggests that it was an important crop grown in the ringditch region in pre-Columbian times, and abundant macroscopic charcoal suggests that pre-Columbian land management entailed more extensive burning of the landscape than the slash-and-burn agriculture practised around the site today. The site was occupied continuously until near-modern times, although there is evidence for a decline in agricultural intensity or change in land use strategy, and possible population decline, from ~600-500 BP. The long and continuous occupation, which predates the establishment of rainforest in the region, suggests that pre-Columbian land use may have had a significant influence on ecosystem development at this site over the last ~2000 years.

Pre-Columbian ring ditch construction and land use on a “chocolate forest island” in the Bolivian Amazon

We present a palaeoecological investigation of pre-Columbian land use in the savannah “forest island” landscape of north-east Bolivian Amazonia. A 5700 year sediment core from La Luna Lake, located adjacent to the La Luna forest island site, was analysed for fossil pollen and charcoal. We aimed to determine the palaeoenvironmental context of pre-Columbian occupation on the site and assess the environmental impact of land use in the forest island region. Evidence for anthropogenic burning and Zea mays L. cultivation began ~2000 cal a BP, at a time when the island was covered by savannah, under drier-than-present climatic conditions. After ~1240 cal a BP burning declined and afforestation occurred. We show that construction of the ring ditch, which encircles the island, did not involve substantial deforestation. Previous estimates of pre-Columbian population size in this region, based upon labour required for forest clearance, should therefore be reconsidered. Despite the high density of economically useful plants, such as Theobroma cacao, in the modern forest, no direct pollen evidence for agroforestry was found. However, human occupation is shown to pre-date and span forest expansion on this site, suggesting that here, and in the wider forest island region, there is no truly pre-anthropogenic ‘pristine’ forest.

Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae) Diversity of a Forest-Fragment Mosaic in the Amazon Rain Forest

To study the impact of Amazonian forest fragmentation on the mosquito fauna, an inventory of Culicidae was conducted in the upland forest research areas of the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project located 60 km north of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. The culicid community was sampled monthly between February 2002 and May 2003. CDC light traps, flight interception traps, manual aspiration, and net sweeping were used to capture adult specimens along the edges and within forest fragments of different sizes (1, 10, and 100 ha), in second-growth areas surrounding the fragments and around camps. We collected 5,204 specimens, distributed in 18 genera and 160 species level taxa. A list of mosquito taxa is presented with 145 species found in the survey, including seven new records for Brazil, 16 new records for the state of Amazonas, along with the 15 morphotypes that probably represent undescribed species. No exotic species [Aedes aegypti (L.) and Aedes albopictus (Skuse)] were found within the sampled areas. Several species collected are potential vectors of Plasmodium causing human malaria and of various arboviruses. The epidemiological and ecological implications of mosquito species found are discussed, and the results are compared with other mosquito inventories from the Amazon region.

Concordant Phylogeographies of 2 Malaria Vectors Attest to Common Spatial and Demographic Histories

The phylogeography of South American lineages is a topic of heated debate. Although a single process is unlikely to describe entire ecosystems, related species, which incur similar habitat limitations, can inform the history for a subsection of assemblages. We compared the phylogeographic patterns of the cytochrome oxidase I marker from Anopheles triannulatus (N = 72) and previous results for A. darlingi (N = 126) in a broad portion of their South American distributions. Both species share similar population subdivisions, with aggregations northeast of the Amazon River, in southern coastal Brazil and 2 regions in central Brazil. The average (ST) between these groups was 0.39 for A. triannulatus. Populations northeast of the Amazon and in southeastern Brazil are generally reciprocally monophyletic to the remaining groups. Based on these initial analyses, we constructed the a priori hypothesis that the Amazon and regions of high declivity pose geographic barriers to dispersal in these taxa. Mantel tests confirmed that these areas block gene flow for more than 1000 km for both species. The efficacy of these impediments was tested using landscape genetics, which could not reject our a priori hypothesis but did reject simpler scenarios. Results form summary statistics and phylogenetics suggest that both lineages originated in central Amazonia (south of the Amazon River) during the late Pleistocene (579 000 years ago) and that they followed the same paths of expansion into their contemporary distributions. These results may have implications for other species sharing similar ecological limitations but probably are not applicable as a general paradigm of Neotropical biogeography.