Synergist interaction between angiotensin II and DOCA on sodium and water balance in rats

Blockade of central angiotensin receptors with the specific antagonist [Leu8]-ANG II abolished water ingestion and water and sodium excretion induced by infusion of angiotensin II (ANGII) into the lateral ventricle (LV) of rats. The antagonist reduced but did not suppress the salt appetite induced by ANGII infusion. Subcutaneous injection of deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) caused increases in water and 3% NaCl ingestion and decreases in sodium excretion. When central ANGII infusion was combined with peripheral DOCA, the water intake was similar to that induced by ANGII alone and the ingestion of 3% NaCl was increased, whereas sodium excretion was inhibited. When ANGII was infused alone, a detailed temporal analysis of fluid and sodium balance showed a negative balance similar those saline controls that persisted throughout the experiment. Combined administration of ANGII and DOCA induce significant changes in water and sodium balance. Sodium and water maintained a positive balance through out the 8-h experiment. The data support an interaction of central ANGII and DOCA on sodium intake and water and sodium balance. © 1994.

Cimetidine-induced Leydig cell apoptosis and reduced EG-VEGF (PK-1) immunoexpression in rats: evidence for the testicular vasculature atrophy

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

BDKRB2+9/-9 Polymorphism Is Associated with Higher Risk for Diabetes Mellitus in the Brazilian General Population

Some mechanisms have been proposed to explain the role of bradykinin on glucose homeostasis and some studies reported that the BDKRB2 +9/-9 polymorphism was associated to the transcriptional activity of the receptor. In this scenario, the main aim of this study was to evaluate the association of the BDKRB2 +9/-9 polymorphism with diabetes mellitus risk in the Brazilian general population. This study included 1,032 subjects of the general urban population. Anthropometrical, blood pressure, biochemical, and genotype analyses for the BDKRB2 +9/-9 bp insertion/deletion polymorphism were performed. Individuals carrying +9/+9 or +9/-9 genotypes had higher glucose values (84.5 mg/dL versus 80.6 mg/dL, resp.) and higher frequency of diabetes mellitus (7.6% versus 3.6%, resp.) compared to individuals carrying -9/-9, adjusting for age and gender. In addition, higher diabetes mellitus risk was associated to presence of the +9/+9 or +9/-9 genotypes (OR = 1.91; 95% CI = 1.09-4.19; P = 0.03). Our data suggest that the BDKRB2 +9/-9 polymorphism may act as a genetic modulator of glucose homeostasis. It was previously associated to insulin sensitivity, glucose uptake, and insulin secretion, and, in this study, data suggest that the polymorphism may increase susceptibility to chronic metabolic conditions such as diabetes in the Brazilian population.

Purinergic transmission in the rostral but not caudal medullary raphe contributes to the hypercapnia-induced ventilatory response in unanesthetized rats

The medullary raphe (MR) is a putative central chemoreceptor site, contributing to hypercapnic respiratory responses elicited by changes in brain PCO2/pH. Purinergic mechanisms in the central nervous system appear to contribute to central chemosensitivity. To further explore the role of P2 receptors within the rostral and caudal MR in relation to respiratory control in room air and hypercapnic conditions, we performed microinjections of PPADS, a non-selective P2X antagonist, in conscious rats. Microinjections of PPADS into the rostral or caudal MR produced no changes in the respiratory frequency, tidal volume and ventilation in room air condition. The ventilatory response to hypercapnia was attenuated after microinjection of PPADS into the rostral but not in the caudal MR when compared to the control group (vehicle microinjection). These data suggest that P2X receptors in the rostral MR contribute to the ventilatory response to CO2, but do not participate in the tonic maintenance of ventilation under room air condition in conscious rats. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Insulin alone or with captopril: effects on signaling pathways (AKT and AMPK) and oxidative balance after ischemia-reperfusion in isolated hearts

Insulin and the inhibition of the reninangiotensin system have independent benefits for ischemiareperfusion injury, but their combination has not been tested. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of insulin+captopril on insulin/angiotensin signaling pathways and cardiac function in the isolated heart subjected to ischemiareperfusion. Isolated hearts were perfused (Langendorff technique) with KrebsHenseleit (KH) buffer for 25 min. Global ischemia was induced (20 min), followed by reperfusion (30 min) with KH (group KH), KH+angiotensin-I (group A), KH+angiotensin-I+captopril (group AC), KH+insulin (group I), KH+insulin+angiotensin-I (group IA), or KH+insulin+angiotensin-I+captopril (group IAC). Group A had a 24% reduction in developed pressure and an increase in end-diastolic pressure vs. baseline, effects that were reverted in groups AC, IA, and IAC. The phosphorylation of protein kinase B (AKT) was higher in groups I and IA vs. groups KH and A. The phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was similar to 31% higher in groups I, IA, and IAC vs. groups KH, A, and AC. The tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBOOH)-induced chemiluminescence was lower (similar to 2.2 times) in all groups vs. group KH and was similar to 35% lower in group IA vs. group A. Superoxide dismutase content was lower in groups A, AC, and IAC vs. group KH. Catalase activity was similar to 28% lower in all groups (except group IA) vs. group KH. During reperfusion of the ischemic heart, insulin activates the AKT and AMPK pathways and inhibits the deleterious effects of angiotensin-I perfusion on SOD expression and cardiac function. The addition of captopril does not potentiate these effects.

Single-cell expression analysis of BMP15 and GDF9 in mature oocytes and BMPR2 in cumulus cells of women with polycystic ovary syndrome undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation

To detect expression of bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15) and growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9) in oocytes, and their receptor type 2 receptor for BMPs (BMPR2) in cumulus cells in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) undergoing in vitro fertilization (IVF), and determine if BMPR2, BMP15, and GDF9 expression correlate with hyperandrogenism in FF of PCOS patients. Prospective case-control study. Eighteen MII-oocytes and their respective cumulus cells were obtained from 18 patients with PCOS, and 48 MII-oocytes and cumulus cells (CCs) from 35 controls, both subjected to controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH), and follicular fluid (FF) was collected from small (10-14 mm) and large (> 18 mm) follicles. RNeasy Micro Kit (Qiagen(A (R))) was used for RNA extraction and gene expression was quantified in each oocyte individually and in microdissected cumulus cells from cumulus-oocyte complexes retrieved from preovulatory follicles using qRT-PCR. Chemiluminescence and RIA assays were used for hormone assays. BMP15 and GDF9 expression per oocyte was higher among women with PCOS than the control group. A positive correlation was found between BMPR2 transcripts and hyperandrogenism in FF of PCOS patients. Progesterone values in FF were lower in the PCOS group. We inferred that BMP15 and GDF9 transcript levels increase in mature PCOS oocytes after COH, and might inhibit the progesterone secretion by follicular cells in PCOS follicles, preventing premature luteinization in cumulus cells. BMPR2 expression in PCOS cumulus cells might be regulated by androgens.

Trypanosoma cruzi invades host cells through the activation of endothelin and bradykinin receptors: a converging pathway leading to chagasic vasculopathy

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Independent studies in experimental models of Trypanosoma cruzi appointed different roles for endothelin-1 (ET-1) and bradykinin (BK) in the immunopathogenesis of Chagas disease. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that pathogenic outcome is influenced by functional interplay between endothelin receptors (ETAR and ETBR) and bradykinin B2 receptors (B2R). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Intravital microscopy was used to determine whether ETR/B2R drives the accumulation of rhodamine-labelled leucocytes in the hamster cheek pouch (HCP). Inflammatory oedema was measured in the infected BALB/c paw of mice. Parasite invasion was assessed in CHO over-expressing ETRs, mouse cardiomyocytes, endothelium (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) or smooth muscle cells (HSMCs), in the presence/absence of antagonists of B2R (HOE-140), ETAR (BQ-123) and ETBR (BQ-788), specific IgG antibodies to each GPCRs; cholesterol or calcium-depleting drugs. RNA interference (ETAR or ETBR genes) in parasite infectivity was investigated in HSMCs. KEY RESULTS BQ-123, BQ-788 and HOE-140 reduced leucocyte accumulation in HCP topically exposed to trypomastigotes and blocked inflammatory oedema in infected mice. Acting synergistically, ETAR and ETBR antagonists reduced parasite invasion of HSMCs to the same extent as HOE-140. Exogenous ET-1 potentiated T. cruzi uptake by HSMCs via ETRs/B2R, whereas RNA interference of ETAR and ETBR genes conversely reduced parasite internalization. ETRs/B2R-driven infection in HSMCs was reduced in HSMC pretreated with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin, a cholesterol-depleting drug, or in thapsigargin-or verapamil-treated target cells. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our findings suggest that plasma leakage, a neutrophil-driven inflammatory response evoked by trypomastigotes via the kinin/endothelin pathways, may offer a window of opportunity for enhanced parasite invasion of cardiovascular cells.

Genomic and non genomic effects of elevated concentration of anabolic steroids in human neuronal cells

Nandrolone and other anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) at elevated concentration can alter the expression and function of neurotransmitter systems and contribute to neuronal cell death. This effect can explain the behavioural changes, drug dependence and neuro degeneration observed in steroid abuser. Nandrolone treatment (10-8M–10-5M) caused a time- and concentration-dependent downregulation of mu opioid receptor (MOPr) transcripts in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. This effect was prevented by the androgen receptor (AR) antagonist hydroxyflutamide. Receptor binding assays confirmed a decrease in MOPr of approximately 40% in nandrolonetreated cells. Treatment with actinomycin D (10-5M), a transcription inhibitor, revealed that nandrolone may regulate MOPr mRNA stability. In SH-SY5Y cells transfected with a human MOPr luciferase promoter/reporter construct, nandrolone did not alter the rate of gene transcription. These results suggest that nandrolone may regulate MOPr expression through post-transcriptional mechanisms requiring the AR. Cito-toxicity assays demonstrated a time- and concentration dependent decrease of cells viability in SH-SY5Y cells exposed to steroids (10-6M–10-4M). This toxic effects is independent of activation of AR and sigma-2 receptor. An increased of caspase-3 activity was observed in cells treated with Nandrolone 10-6M for 48h. Collectively, these data support the existence of two cellular mechanisms that might explain the neurological syndromes observed in steroids abuser.

In vitro generation and characterization of acute myeloid leukemia-reactive CD8 + cytotoxic T-lymphocyte clones from healthy donors

Donor-derived CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) eliminating host leukemic cells mediate curative graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) reactions after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). The leukemia-reactive CTLs recognize hematopoiesis-restricted or broadly expressed minor histocompatibility and leukemia-associated peptide antigens that are presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I molecules on recipient cells. The development of allogeneic CTL therapy in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is hampered by the poor efficiency of current techniques for generating leukemia-reactive CTLs from unprimed healthy donors in vitro. In this work, a novel allogeneic mini-mixed lymphocyte/leukemia culture (mini-MLLC) approach was established by stimulating CD8+ T cells isolated from peripheral blood of healthy donors at comparably low numbers (i.e. 10e4/well) with HLA class I-matched primary AML blasts in 96-well microtiter plates. Before culture, CD8+ T cells were immunomagnetically separated into CD62L(high)+ and CD62L(low)+/neg subsets enriched for naive/central memory and effector memory cells, respectively. The application of 96-well microtiter plates aimed at creating multiple different responder-stimulator cell compositions in order to provide for the growth of leukemia-reactive CTLs optimized culture conditions by chance. The culture medium was supplemented with interleukin (IL)-7, IL-12, and IL-15. On day 14, IL-12 was replaced by IL-2. In eight different related and unrelated donor/AML pairs with complete HLA class I match, numerous CTL populations were isolated that specifically lysed myeloid leukemias in association with various HLA-A, -B, or -C alleles. These CTLs recognized neither lymphoblastoid B cell lines of donor and patient origin nor primary B cell leukemias expressing the corresponding HLA restriction element. CTLs expressed T cell receptors of single V-beta chain families, indicating their clonality. The vast majority of CTL clones were obtained from mini-MLLCs initiated with CD8+ CD62L(high)+ cells. Using antigen-specific stimulation, multiple CTL populations were amplified to 10e8-10e10 cells within six to eight weeks. The capability of mini-MLLC derived AML-reactive CTL clones to inhibit the engraftment of human primary AML blasts was investigated in the immunodeficient nonobese diabetic/severe combined immune deficient IL-2 receptor common γ-chain deficient (NOD/SCID IL2Rγnull) mouse model. The leukemic engraftment in NOD/SCID IL2Rγnull was specifically prevented if inoculated AML blasts had been pre-incubated in vitro with AML-reactive CTLs, but not with anti-melanoma control CTLs. These results demonstrate that myeloid leukemia-specific CTL clones capable of preventing AML engraftment in mice can be rapidly isolated from CD8+ CD62L(high)+ T cells of healthy donors in vitro. The efficient generation and expansion of these CTLs by the newly established mini-MLLC approach opens the door for several potential applications. First, CTLs can be used within T cell-driven antigen identification strategies to extend the panel of molecularly defined AML antigens that are recognizable by T cells of healthy donors. Second, because these CTLs can be isolated from the stem cell donor by mini-MLLC prior to transplantation, they could be infused into AML patients as a part of the stem cell allograft, or early after transplantation when the leukemia burden is low. The capability of these T cells to expand and function in vivo might require the simultaneous administration of AML-reactive CD4+ T cells generated by a similar in vitro strategy or, less complex, the co-transfer of CD8-depleted donor lymphocytes. To prepare clinical testing, the mini-MLLC approach should now be translated into a protocol that is compatible with good manufacturing practice guidelines.

Evaluation eines humanisierten Mausmodells der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung

Aus der zunehmenden Prävalenz allergischer Erkrankungen vor allem in den Industrienationen ergibt sich ein erhöhter Bedarf an Grundlagenforschung im Bereich von Allergie und Asthma sowie der Entwicklung innovativer Therapiestrategien. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden die immundefizienten Mausstämme NOD-Scid und NOD-Scid gc als vielversprechender translationaler Schritt zwischen dem reinen Tiermodell und der Erprobung neuer Therapieansätze an Probanden in klinischen Studien beleuchtet. Im experimentellen Verlauf der Arbeit wurde ein humanisiertes Mausmodell der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung zunächst in immundefizienten NOD-Scid und darauffolgend in NOD-Scid gc Mäusen etabliert. Diese Mausstämme zeichnen sich durch das Nichtvorhandensein von B- und T-Zellen aus. Im NOD-Scid gc Stamm resultiert aus einer zusätzlichen Mutation des Gens für die gamma-Kette des IL-2 Rezeptors der Verlust von natürlichen Killerzellen (NK-Zellen), was die Immunität in diesem Stamm weiter herabsetzt und eine Humanisierung erleichtert. Die Humanisierung der Mäuse erfolgte durch die intraperitoneale Injektion von mononukleären Zellen des peripheren Blutes (PBMCs), die unter Anwendung der Ficoll-Dichtezentrifugation aus dem Blut von Probanden isoliert wurden. Für die Gewinnung der PBMCs wurden zum einen Asthma-Patienten mit einer hochgradigen Sensibilisierung gegen Birkenpollen herangezogen. Zum anderen wurden in Kontrollexperimenten PBMCs nicht-allergischer Probanden verwendet. Während sich für den NOD-Scid Stamm 80 Millionen PBMCs als angemessene Transferzahl erwiesen, reichten für die Rekonstitution des NOD-Scid gc Stammes 5 Millionen PBMCs aus. Eine Analyse der Tiere erfolgte 24 Tage nach Injektion der humanen Zellen. Der Transfer der PBMCs allergischer Asthmatiker führte besonders nach additiver Applikation des Birkenallergens sowie des humanen rekombinanten Zytokins IL-4 und darauffolgender nasaler allergener Provokation zu einer starken pulmonalen Entzündung in den Mäusen. Die nasale Allergenprovokation an den Tagen 20-22 nach PBMC-Transfer erwies sich für das Aufkommen der Inflammation als unbedingt erforderlich. Die nasale Provokation mit Phosphat-gepufferter Salzlösung (PBS) mündete in einer herabgesetzten Inflammation ohne Ausprägung einer Atemwegsüberempfindlichkeit (AHR), reduzierten Zellzahlen in der bronchoalveolären Lavage (BAL) sowie verminderten Frequenzen humaner Zellen in den Lungen von Versuchstieren, die mit atopischen PBMCs supplementiert mit Birkenallergen und IL-4 rekonstituiert wurden. Die Allergenabhängigkeit des etablierten Modells wurde anhand von Experimenten untermauert, die verdeutlichten, dass ein Transfer von PBMCs nicht-allergischer Probanden trotz Zugabe des Allergens und humanem IL-4 keine Atemwegsinflammation auslöste. Bei den humanen Zellen, die an Tag 24 nach Rekonstitution in den Mäusen detektiert werden konnten, handelte es sich hauptsächlich um T-Zellen. Innerhalb dieser CD3+ T-Zellen konnten CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen differenziert werden. Depletionsexperimente, in denen nach Gewinnung der PBMCs aus dem Blut der Probanden verschiedene T-Zellsubpopulationen (CD3+, CD4+, CD8+) eliminiert wurden, führten zu dem Befund, dass die allergische Atemwegsentzündung in dem System von humanen CD4+ T-Zellen abhängig war. Nach der Etablierung des humanisierten Mausmodells der allergischen Atemwegsentzündung wurde das System zur Analyse des suppressionsfördernden Potentials des HIV-1 - Hüllproteins gp120 genutzt. Die Applikation von gp120 führte zu einer Reduktion der Atemwegsinflammation. Dies äußerte sich in einer Aufhebung der AHR, verminderten Zellzahlen in der BAL sowie dem reduzierten Einstrom humaner T-Zellen in die Lungen der rekonstituierten Tiere. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass die anti-inflammatorische Wirkung des gp120 strikt von der Anwesenheit regulatorischer T-Zellen (Tregs) innerhalb der für die Humanisierung genutzten PBMCs abhängig war. Eine Depletion der Tregs vor Transfer in die Mäuse führte zum Verlust der anti-inflammatorischen Effekte des gp120. Diese Ergebnisse sprechen für die Modulation regulatorischer T-Zellen als hoffnungsvolle Maßnahme in der Behandlung allergischer Erkrankungen. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse eröffnen innovative Ansätze zur Analyse neuer Therapiestrategien in einem Testsystem, dass die Erforschung humaner Zellinteraktionen sowie die Wirkung potentieller Arzneistoffe auf humane Zellen unter in vivo Bedingungen erlaubt.

β-Arrestin2 influences the response to methadone in opioid-dependent patients

β-Arrestin2 (ARRB2) is a component of the G-protein-coupled receptor complex and is involved in μ-opioid and dopamine D(2) receptor signaling, two central processes in methadone signal transduction. We analyzed 238 patients in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) and identified a haplotype block (rs34230287, rs3786047, rs1045280 and rs2036657) spanning almost the entire ARRB2 locus. Although none of these single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) leads to a change in amino-acid sequence, we found that for all the SNPs analyzed, with exception of rs34230287, homozygosity for the variant allele confers a nonresponding phenotype (n=73; rs1045280C and rs2036657G: OR=3.1, 95% CI=1.5-6.3, P=0.004; rs3786047A: OR=2.5, 95% CI=1.2-5.1, P=0.02) also illustrated by a 12-fold shorter period of negative urine screening (P=0.01). The ARRB2 genotype may thus contribute to the interindividual variability in the response to MMT and help to predict response to treatment.

Generalization of amygdala LTP and conditioned fear in the absence of presynaptic inhibition

Pavlovian fear conditioning, a simple form of associative learning, is thought to involve the induction of associative, NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) in the lateral amygdala. Using a combined genetic and electrophysiological approach, we show here that lack of a specific GABA(B) receptor subtype, GABA(B(1a,2)), unmasks a nonassociative, NMDA receptor-independent form of presynaptic LTP at cortico-amygdala afferents. Moreover, the level of presynaptic GABA(B(1a,2)) receptor activation, and hence the balance between associative and nonassociative forms of LTP, can be dynamically modulated by local inhibitory activity. At the behavioral level, genetic loss of GABA(B(1a)) results in a generalization of conditioned fear to nonconditioned stimuli. Our findings indicate that presynaptic inhibition through GABA(B(1a,2)) receptors serves as an activity-dependent constraint on the induction of homosynaptic plasticity, which may be important to prevent the generalization of conditioned fear.

[No rebound psychosis in a case of switching from clozapine to quetiapine]

OBJECTIVE: After rapid discontinuation of clozapine treatment rebound psychosis have been reported. Preexposure of D (2) receptors to clozapine may alter their affinity to endogenous dopamine. Clozapine withdrawal may also lead dysfunctional NMDA-receptors to cause dopamine release in the striatum. METHOD: We report a case of a schizophrenic patient treated with clozapine 200 mg and aripiprazole 15 mg per day. After rapid clozapine discontinuation we added quetiapine up to 700 mg daily. RESULTS: No rebound psychosis occurred. Even ten weeks after switching to quetiapine the patient's condition remained stable in the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of aripiprazole and quetiapine seemed to control supersensitivity effects at the D (2) receptor after clozapin withdrawal in this case.

Ondansetron does not reduce the shivering threshold in healthy volunteers

BACKGROUND: Ondansetron, a serotonin-3 receptor antagonist, reduces postoperative shivering. Drugs that reduce shivering usually impair central thermoregulatory control, and may thus be useful for preventing shivering during induction of therapeutic hypothermia. We determined, therefore, whether ondansetron reduces the major autonomic thermoregulatory response thresholds (triggering core temperatures) in humans. METHODS: Control (placebo) and ondansetron infusions at the target plasma concentration of 250 ng ml(-1) were studied in healthy volunteers on two different days. Each day, skin and core temperatures were increased to provoke sweating; then reduced to elicit peripheral vasoconstriction and shivering. We determined the core-temperature sweating, vasoconstriction and shivering thresholds after compensating for changes in mean-skin temperature. Data were analysed using t-tests and presented as means (sds); P<0.05 was taken as significant. RESULTS: Ondensetron plasma concentrations were 278 (57), 234 (55) and 243 (58) ng ml(-1) at the sweating, vasoconstriction and shivering thresholds, respectively; these corresponded to approximately 50 mg of ondansetron which is approximately 10 times the dose used for postoperative nausea and vomiting. Ondansetron did not change the sweating (control 37.4 (0.4) degrees C, ondansetron 37.6 (0.3) degrees C, P=0.16), vasoconstriction (37.0 (0.5) degrees C vs 37.1 (0.3) degrees C; P=0.70), or shivering threshold (36.3 (0.5) degrees C vs 36.3 (0.6) degrees C; P=0.76). No sedation was observed on either study day. CONCLUSIONS: /b>. Ondansetron appears to have little potential for facilitating induction of therapeutic hypothermia.

In vitro effects of bethanechol on specimens of intestinal smooth muscle obtained from the duodenum and jejunum of healthy dairy cows

OBJECTIVE: To describe the in vitro effects of bethanechol on contractility of smooth muscle preparations from the small intestines of healthy cows and define the muscarinic receptor subtypes involved in mediating contraction. SAMPLE POPULATION: Tissue samples from the duodenum and jejunum collected immediately after slaughter of 40 healthy cows. PROCEDURES: Cumulative concentration-response curves were determined for the muscarinic receptor agonist bethanechol with or without prior incubation with subtype-specific receptor antagonists in an organ bath. Effects of bethanechol and antagonists and the influence of intestinal location on basal tone, maximal amplitude (A(max)), and area under the curve (AUC) were evaluated. RESULTS: Bethanechol induced a significant, concentration-dependent increase in all preparations and variables. The effect of bethanechol was more pronounced in jejunal than in duodenal samples and in circular than in longitudinal preparations. Significant inhibition of the effects of bethanechol was observed after prior incubation with muscarinic receptor subtype M(3) antagonists (more commonly for basal tone than for A(max) and AUC). The M(2) receptor antagonists partly inhibited the response to bethanechol, especially for basal tone. The M(3) receptor antagonists were generally more potent than the M(2) receptor antagonists. In a protection experiment, an M(3) receptor antagonist was less potent than when used in combination with an M(2) receptor antagonist. Receptor antagonists for M(1) and M(4) did not affect contractility variables. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Bethanechol acting on muscarinic receptor sub-types M(2) and M(3) may be of clinical use as a prokinetic drug for motility disorders of the duodenum and jejunum in dairy cows.