Telomerase activity: A biomarker of cell proliferation, not malignant transformation

Telomerase activity is readily detected in most cancer biopsies, but not in premalignant lesions or in normal tissue samples with a few exceptions that include germ cells and hemopoietic stem cells. Telomerase activity may, therefore, be a useful biomarker for diagnosis of malignancies and a target for inactivation in chemotherapy or gene therapy. These observations have led to the hypothesis that activation of telomerase may be an important step in tumorigenesis. To test this hypothesis, we studied telomerase activity in isogeneic samples of uncultured and cultured specimens of normal human uroepithelial cells (HUCs) and in uncultured and cultured biopsies of superficial and myoinvasive transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) of the bladder. Our results demonstrated that four of four TCC biopsies, representing both superficial and myoinvasive TCCs, were positive for telomerase activity, but all samples of uncultured HUC were telomerase negative. However, when the same normal HUC samples were established as proliferating cultures in vitro, telomerase activity was readily detected but usually at lower levels than in TCCs. Consistent with the above observation of the telomerase activity in HUCs, telomeres did not shorten during the HUC in vitro lifespan. Demonstration of telomerase in proliferating human epithelial cells in vitro was not restricted to HUCs, because it was also present in prostate and mammary cell cultures. Notably, telomerase activity was relatively low or undetectable in nonproliferating HUC cultures. These data do not support a model in which telomerase is inactive in normal cells and activated during tumorigenic transformation. Rather, these data support a model in which the detection of telomerase in TCC biopsies, but not uncultured HUC samples, reflects differences in proliferation between tumor and normal cells in vivo.

msg1, a novel melanocyte-specific gene, encodes a nuclear protein and is associated with pigmentation.

Messenger RNA transcripts of the highly pigmented murine melanoma B16-F1 cells were compared with those from their weakly pigmented derivative B16-F10 cells by differential display. A novel gene called msg1 (melanocyte-specific gene) was found to be expressed at high levels in B16-F1 cells but at low levels in B16-F10 cells. Expression of msg1 was undetectable in the amelanotic K1735 murine melanoma cells. The pigmented murine melanocyte cell line melan-a expressed msg1, as did pigmented primary cultures of murine and human melanocytes; however, seven amelanotic or very weakly pigmented human melanoma cell lines were negative. Transformation of murine melanocytes by transfection with v-Ha-ras or Ela was accompanied by depigmentation and led to complete loss of msg1 expression. The normal tissue distribution of msg1 mRNA transcripts in adult mice was confined to melanocytes and testis. Murine msg1 and human MSG1 genes encode a predicted protein of 27 kDa with 75% overall amino acid identity and 96% identity within the C-terminal acidic domain of 54 amino acids. This C-terminal domain was conserved with 76% amino acid identity in another protein product of a novel human gene, MRG1 (msg1-related gene), isolated from normal human melanocyte cDNA by 5'-rapid amplification of cDNA ends based on the homology to msg1. The msg1 protein was localized to the melanocyte nucleus by immunofluorescence cytochemistry. We conclude that msg1 encodes a nuclear protein, is melanocyte-specific, and appears to be lost in depigmented melanoma cells.

Formation of junctions involved in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal and cardiac muscle.

During excitation-contraction (e-c) coupling of striated muscle, depolarization of the surface membrane is converted into Ca2+ release from internal stores. This process occurs at intracellular junctions characterized by a specialized composition and structural organization of membrane proteins. The coordinated arrangement of the two key junctional components--the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) in the surface membrane and the ryanodine receptor (RyR) in the sarcoplasmic reticulum--is essential for their normal, tissue-specific function in e-c coupling. The mechanisms involved in the formation of the junctions and a potential participation of DHPRs and RyRs in this process have been subject of intensive studies over the past 5 years. In this review we discuss recent advances in understanding the organization of these molecules in skeletal and cardiac muscle, as well as their concurrent and independent assembly during development of normal and mutant muscle. From this information we derive a model for the assembly of the junctions and the establishment of the precise structural relationship between DHPRs and RyRs that underlies their interaction in e-c coupling.

A methylated human 9-kb repetitive sequence on acrocentric chromosomes is homologous to a subtelomeric repeat in chimpanzees.

We have implemented an approach for the detection of DNA alterations in cancer by means of computerized analysis of end-labeled genomic fragments, separated in two dimensions. Analysis of two-dimensional patterns of neuroblastoma tumors, prepared by first digesting DNA with the methylation-sensitive restriction enzyme Not I, yielded a multicopy fragment which was detected in some tumor patterns but not in normal controls. Cloning and sequencing of the fragment, isolated from two-dimensional gels, yielded a sequence with a strong homology to a subtelomeric sequence in chimpanzees and which was previously reported to be undetectable in humans. Fluorescence in situ hybridization indicated the occurrence of this sequence in normal tissue, for the most part in the satellite regions of acrocentric chromosomes. A product containing this sequence was obtained by telomere-anchored PCR using as a primer an oligonucleotide sequence from the cloned fragment. Our data suggest demethylation of cytosines at the cloned Not I site and in neighboring DNA in some tumors, compared with normal tissue, and suggest a greater similarity between human and chimpanzee subtelomeric sequences than was previously reported.

4-Hydroxylation of estrogens as marker of human mammary tumors.

Estrogen is a known risk factor in human breast cancer. In rodent models, estradiol has been shown to induce tumors in those tissues in which this hormone is predominantly converted to the catechol metabolite 4-hydroxyestradiol by a specific 4-hydroxylase enzyme, whereas tumors fail to develop in organs in which 2-hydroxylation predominates. We have now found that microsomes prepared from human mammary adenocarcinoma and fibroadenoma predominantly catalyze the metabolic 4-hydroxylation of estradiol (ratios of 4-hydroxyestradiol/2-hydroxyestradiol formation in adenocarcinoma and fibroadenoma, 3.8 and 3.7, respectively). In contrast, microsomes from normal tissue obtained either from breast cancer patients or from reduction mammoplasty operations expressed comparable estradiol 2- and 4-hydroxylase activities (corresponding ratios, 1.3 and 0.7, respectively). An elevated ratio of 4-/2-hydroxyestradiol formation in neoplastic mammary tissue may therefore provide a useful marker of benign or malignant breast tumors and may indicate a mechanistic role of 4-hydroxyestradiol in tumor development.

Improved biodistribution, tumor targeting, and reduced immunogenicity in mice with a gamma 4 variant of Campath-1H.

Radiolabeled antibodies have shown promise for the treatment of lymphoma and for solid tumor targeting. Campath-1H is a humanized monoclonal antibody that reacts with the CD52 antigen present on human lymphoid and myeloid cells. Campath-1H is a gamma1 (G1) isotype that induces lymphopenia via an Fc-mediated mechanism(s). Isotype switches were engineered, and the resulting antibodies were expressed in NS0 mouse myeloma cells and biosynthetically radiolabeled with [35S]methionine. The forms included G1, G4, and a G4 variant that contained alanine substitutions at (EU numbering) Leu-235, Gly-237, and Glu-318. All isotypes bound antigen equivalently as assessed by target cell binding in vitro. The G4 variant had a greatly reduced capacity to interact with Fc receptor by virtue of reduced binding to THP-1 human myeloid cells and by a 1000-fold increase in EC50 to intermediate antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. The pharmacokinetics of the isotypes were compared in CD-1 (nu/nu) mice bearing an experimental antigen-expressing tumor. The plasma half-life and tumor uptake were increased for the G4 variant. The G4 variant showed significantly less spleen, liver, and bone uptake but similar uptake in the lung, kidney, and stomach and lower tissue-to-blood ratios. Immunogenicity was assessed after repeated monthly administrations of unlabeled antibody in BALB/c mice. A 50% reduction in the incidence of anti-globulin response was observed for the G4 variant. These properties suggest that antibodies with reduced Fc receptor interaction merit additional study as potential targeting vehicles relative to other isotypes for radioimmunotherapy or situations where diminished normal tissue binding contributes to efficacy.

A simple p53 functional assay for screening cell lines, blood, and tumors.

Mutations in the p53 gene are implicated in the pathogenesis of half of all human tumors. We have developed a simple functional assay for p53 mutation in which human p53 expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae activates transcription of the ADE2 gene. Consequently, yeast colonies containing wild-type p53 are white and colonies containing mutant p53 are red. Since this assay tests the critical biological function of p53, it can distinguish inactivating mutations from functionally silent mutations. By combining this approach with gap repair techniques in which unpurified p53 reverse transcription-PCR products are cloned by homologous recombination in vivo it is possible to screen large numbers of samples and multiple clones per sample for biologically important mutations. This means that mutations can be detected in tumor specimens contaminated with large amounts of normal tissue. In addition, the assay detects temperature-sensitive mutants, which give pink colonies. We show here that this form of p53 functional assay can be used rapidly to detect germline mutations in blood samples, somatic mutations in tumors, and mutations in cell lines.

Lisil oxidase e propriedades pró-tumorigênicas de pericitos

O microambiente tumoral é composto por células, como fibroblastos, células do sistema imune, células endoteliais e pericitos, envoltas por uma matriz extracelular, além de possuir fatores solúveis que participam da comunicação celular. Nas últimas décadas, têm-se entendido cada vez melhor seu papel na iniciação e progressão dos tumores. É de fundamental importância, portanto, entender a biologia dos seus componentes e como podem agir em favor do desenvolvimento tumoral. Diversos trabalhos demonstram que há uma associação entre a presença dos pericitos nos vasos tumorais com a agressividade e prognóstico de alguns tipos de câncer. Uma vez ativadas, além do papel estrutural, essas células modulam as atividades das células endoteliais durante a formação de novos vasos, além de adquirirem propriedades como proliferação e migração. Neste contexto, os pericitos passam a secretar fatores importantes na comunicação célula-a-célula e liberam enzimas moduladoras na matriz extracelular. A lisil oxidase (LOX) é uma das principais enzimas que atuam sobre a matriz extracelular. Já está bem descrito que, quando superexpressa em células tumorais, a LOX pode alterar a migração e invasão dessas células, promovendo a geração de metástases. Entretanto, pouco se sabe a respeito da atuação dessa enzima sobre os demais componentes celulares do estroma tumoral, como os pericitos. Sendo assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal verificar se enzima LOX é relevante para a ativação de propriedades dos pericitos que possam contribuir para suas funções pró-tumorigênicas, como migração, proliferação e formação de vasos. Os resultados foram gerados avaliando essas atividades dos pericitos após pré-tratamento de 24 horas com β-aminopropionitrile (βAPN), um inibidor irreversível da LOX. Foram utilizadas duas linhagens de pericitos derivados de tecido normal (adiposo e muscular) e duas linhagens de pericitos provenientes de tecido tumores do sistema nervoso central (neuroblastoma e ependimoma). Este composto foi capaz de diminuir a capacidade de migração das células de todas as linhagens testadas e, de maneira geral, tornou o processo de formação de estruturas tubulares in vitro menos eficiente. Entretanto, não foram observadas alterações na proliferação celular. Os dados indicam, portanto, que a enzima LOX pode ser importante para a ativação dos pericitos e, possivelmente, influenciem no seu comportamento no microambiente tumoral

Expressão de metaloproteinases de matriz (MMPS) e de seus inibidores (TIMPS e RECK) em modelo de progressão tumoral de Câncer de mama e sua correlação com dados clínicos-patológicos

O câncer de mama é o tipo de câncer mais comumente detectado em mulheres de todo o mundo. Na maioria das pacientes, a causa de morte se deve, principalmente, à doença metastática que pode se desenvolver a partir do tumor primário. O processo metastático envolve uma complexa cascata de eventos, incluindo a quebra organizada dos componentes da matriz extracelular por metaloproteinases de matriz (MMPs). A atividade das MMPs é precisamente regulada por inibidores específicos, os inibidores teciduais das MMPs (TIMPs). Dado seu papel na progressão tumoral, níveis elevados de MMPs têm sido associados com prognóstico desfavorável para pacientes com câncer. Por outro lado, sendo os TIMPs proteínas multifuncionais, níveis elevados de TlMP-1 e de TIMP-2 correlacionam com agressividade do tumor e prognóstico ruim em diferentes tipos de câncer, incluindo o câncer de mama. O gene supressor de metástase RECK codifica uma glicoproteína de membrana capaz de inibir a invasão e a metástase tumoral através da regulação negativa da atividade de MMPs envolvidas em carcinogênese: MMP-2, MMP-9 e MMP-14 (MT1-MMP). A fim de analisar o papel das MMPs e de seus inibidores (TIMPs e RECK) na progressão tumoral do câncer de mama, o perfil de expressão destes genes foi detectado, através de ensaios de Real-Time PCR, em um painel de cinco linhagens celulares de carcinoma de mama humano com diferentes potenciais invasivos e metastáticos e em 72 amostras teciduais de tumores primários de mama e 30 amostras teciduais de borda normal adjacente ao tumor. O perfil de expressão protéica de RECK foi avaliado em 236 amostras de tumores primários de mama através de ensaios de Tissue Microarray. Além disso, a atividade proteolítica das MMPs foi detectada em ensaios de Zimografia. Os resultados obtidos indicam que a progressão do câncer de mama humano está relacionada com um aumento dos níveis de expressão das MMPs e de seus inibidores específicos. O aumento dos níveis de expressão dos TIMPs parece estar relacionado ao seu papel como proteína multifuncional que pode estar funcionando de maneira a promover, mais do que suprimir, a progressão tumoral. Níveis elevados da expressão protéica de RECK estão associados com pior prognóstico. No entanto, para pacientes em estádios clínicos avançados, altos níveis de expressão de RECK podem estar correlacionados com melhor prognóstico, dependendo do balanço MMP/inibidor. Os níveis de expressão das MMPs apresentaram correlação positiva em relação aos níveis de expressão de seus inibidores específicos, sugerindo a existência de fatores e vias de sinalização comuns envolvidas na regulação coordenada destes genes. Além disso, a síntese do inibidor pode estar relacionada a uma resposta celular ao aumento da expressão e atividade de proteases. O balanço transcricional enzima/inibidor favorece a enzima nas amostras tumorais e, de modo contrário, o inibidor específico nas amostras de borda normal, sugerindo o balanço como o principal fator na determinação da degradação da MEC em processos invasivos e metastáticos. Os resultados obtidos podem contribuir para um melhor entendimento da complexidade dos mecanismos envolvidos na metástase do câncer de mama.

Routine histological technique applied to a biological model for environmental studies

Introduction and aim Earthworms are an important test organisms used in several standard ecotoxicological tests (e.g. ISO, 2008, 2012; OECD, 2004, 1094) and they are also model organisms to test soil structure and permeability, as well as for important soil services as the degradation organic matter. Although histopathological changes have been demonstrated to be good biomarkers to assess the exposure of these animals to different physical and chemical stress agents, studies with clear and high quality images describing normal tissue conditions are scarce in the literature, so the aim of this work was to better characterize this biological model. Material and Methods Eight adult earthworms exposed to an artificial standard soil (OECD, 2004) for 28 days, were extracted and placed in a plastic box to depurate their gut content, fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin and processed for routine histopathological diagnosis. Results and discussion Satisfactory histological sections were obtained. Some difficulties were faced related with microtome sectioning, resulting in artefacts, namely lines across sections produced by a nick in the cutting edge of the microtome knife cutting tear, motivated by the presence of sand and other solid particles that persisted in the gut of earthworms. Nevertheless, it was possible to obtain representative figures from different earthworm sections. Conclusion Routine histological technique was effective for obtaining satisfactory histological sections and the knowledge of the histology of earthworms could be very useful for future application in environmental studies, using this biological model.

Endothelin axis expression is markedly different in the two main subtypes of renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND. The endothelin axis has been implicated in cancer growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis, but to the authors' knowledge the expression of endothelin genes has not been defined in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). METHODS. Tissue specimens were harvested from both normal and tumor-affected regions at the time of radical nephrectomy from 35 patients with RCC (22 with clear cell RCC [ccRCC] and 13 with papillary RCC [PRCC]). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis determined the expression profile of the preproendothelins (PPET-1, PPET-2, and PPET-3), the endothelin receptors (ETA and ETB), and the endothelin-converting enzymes (ECE-1 and ECE-2). RESULTS. PPET-1 was found to be up-regulated in ccRCC tumor specimens and down-regulated in PRCC tumor specimens. ETA was significantly down-regulated in PRCC tumor specimens. ECE-1 was expressed in all tissue specimens at comparable levels, with moderate but significant elevation in normal tissue specimens associated with PRCC. Of the other genes, PPET-2 and ETB were expressed in all tissue specimens and no differences were observed between tumor subtypes or tumor-affected and normal tissue specimens, whereas PPET-3 and ECE-2 were present in all tissue specimens but were barely detectable. CONCLUSIONS. The endothelin axis was expressed differently in the two main subtypes of RCC and appeared to match macroscopic features commonly observed in these tumors (i.e., high expression of PPET-I in hypervascular ccRCC contrasted against low PPET-1 and ETA expression in hypovascular PRCC). The presence of ECE-1 mRNA in these tissue specimens suggested that active endothelin ligands were present, indicating endothelin axis activity was elevated in ccRCC compared with normal kidney, but impaired in PRCC. The current study provided further evidence that it is not appropriate to consider ccRCC and PRCC indiscriminately in regard to treatment. (C) 2004 American Cancer Society.

Expression of the cell surface mucin gene family in adenocarcinomas

Cell surface mucins are complex glycoproteins expressed on the apical membrane surface of mucosal epithelial cells. In malignant epithelial cells they are thought to influence cell adhesion, and are clinical targets for tumor immunotherapy and serum tumor marker assays. We have compared expression of MUC1, MUC3, MUC4, MUC11, MUC12 and MUC13 mRNA in epithelial cancers and/or cell lines with non-malignant tissues. In non-malignant tissues, MUC3, 4, 11, 12 and 13 were expressed at highest levels in gastrointestinal tissues, whereas MUC1 was more widely distributed. Significant down-regulation of the MUC4, MUC12 and MUC13 genes was observed in colonic cancers compared with normal tissue, whereas MUC1 was upregulated. In rectal cancers, levels of all six mucin genes were not significantly different to those in normal rectal tissues. Both MUC1 and MUC4 were down-regulated in gastric cancers, whereas cancer and normal tissue levels were similar for MUC3, 11, 12 and 13. In esophageal cancers there was a general trend toward higher levels than in normal tissue for MUC1, 3, 12 and 13. In ovarian cancers MUC1 levels were very high, whereas only low levels of all other mucins were observed. We also report expression in renal cell carcinomas, bladder carcinomas and breast cancer cell lines. The reported expression profiles of the cell surface mucin gene family will help direct biological and clinical studies of these molecules in mucosal biology, and in malignant and inflammatory diseases of epithelial tissues.

Defining the chemotherapeutic targets of Histone Deacetylase inhibitors

The use of many conventional chemotherapeutic drugs is often severely restricted due to dose-limiting toxicities, as these drugs target the destruction of the proliferating fraction of cells, often with little specificity for tumor cells over proliferating normal body tissue. Many newer drugs attempt to overcome this shortcoming by targeting defective gene products or cellular mechanisms that are specific to the tumor, thereby minimizing the toxicity to normal tissue. Histone deacetylase inhibitors are an example of this type of tumor-directed drug, having significant toxicity for tumors but minimal effects on normal tissue. These drugs can affect the transcriptional program by modifying chromatin structure, but it is not yet clear whether specific transcriptional changes are directly responsible for their tumor-selective toxicity. Recent evidence suggests that transcriptional changes underlie their cytostatic activity, although this is not tumor-selective and affects all proliferating cells. Here we present evidence that supports an alternative mechanism for the tumor-selective cytotoxicity of histone deacetylase inhibitors. The target is still likely to be the chromatin histones, but rather than transcriptional changes due to modification of the transcriptionally active euchromatin, we propose that hyperacetylation and disruption of the transcriptionally inactive heterochromatin, particularly the centromeric heterochromatin, and the inability of tumor cells to cell cycle arrest in response to a specific checkpoint, underlies the tumor-selective cytotoxicity of these drugs.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors specifically kill nonproliferating tumour cells

Conventional chemotherapeutic drugs target proliferating cells, relying on often small differences in drug sensitivity of tumour cells compared to normal tissue to deliver a therapeutic benefit. Consequently, they have significant limiting toxicities and greatly reduced efficacy against nonproliferating compared to rapidly proliferating tumour cells. This lack of selectivity and inability to kill nonproliferating cells that exist in tumours with a low mitotic index are major failings of these drugs. A relatively new class of anticancer drugs, the histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDI), are selectively cytotoxic, killing tumour and immortalized cells but normal tissue appears resistant. Treatment of tumour cells with these drugs causes both G1 phase cell cycle arrest correlated with increase p21 expression, and cell death, but even the G1 arrested cells died although the onset of death was delayed. We have extended these observations using cells that were stably arrested by either serum starvation or expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16(ink4a). We report that histone deacetylase inhibitors have similar cytotoxicity towards both proliferating and arrested tumour and immortalized cells, although the onset of apoptosis is delayed by 24 h in the arrested cells. Both proliferating and arrested normal cells are unaffected by HDI treatment. Thus, the histone deacetylase inhibitors are a class of anticancer drugs that have the desirable features of being tumour-selective cytotoxic drugs that are equally effective in killing proliferating and nonproliferating tumour cells and immortalized cells. These drugs have enormous potential for the treatment of not only rapidly proliferating tumours, but tumours with a low mitotic index.

Expression of ATM, p53, and the MRE11-Rad50-NBS1 complex in myoepithelial cells from benign and malignant proliferations of the breast

Aims: To analyse the expression of proteins involved in DNA double strand break detection and repair in the luminal and myoepithelial compartments of benign breast lesions and malignant breast tumours with myoepithelial differentiation. Methods: Expression of the ataxia telangiectasia (ATM) and p53 proteins was immunohistochemically evaluated in 18 benign and malignant myoepithelial tumours of the breast. Fifteen benign breast lesions with prominent myoepithelial compartment were also evaluated for these proteins, in addition to those in the MRE11-Rad50-NBS1 (MRN) complex, and the expression profiles were compared with those seen in eight independent non-cancer (normal breast) samples and in the surrounding normal tissues of the benign and malignant tumours examined. Results: ATM expression was higher in the myoepithelial compartment of three of 15 benign breast lesions and lower in the luminal compartment of eight of these lesions compared with that found in the corresponding normal tissue compartments. Malignant myoepithelial tumours overexpressed ATM in one of 18 cases. p53 was consistently negative in benign lesions and was overexpressed in eight of 18 malignant tumours. In benign breast lesions, expression of the MRN complex was significantly more reduced in myoepithelial cells (up to 73%) than in luminal cells (up to 40%) (p = 0.0005). Conclusions: Malignant myoepithelial tumours rarely overexpress ATM but are frequently positive for p53. In benign breast lesions, expression of the MRN complex was more frequently reduced in the myoepithelial than in the luminal epithelial compartment, suggesting different DNA repair capabilities in these two cell types.