Variation in peach fruit susceptibility to Monilinia laxa and gene expression

Brown rot caused by Monilinia laxa and Monilinia fructigena is considered one of the most important diseases affecting Prunus species. Although some losses can result from the rotten fruits in the orchard, most of the damage is caused to fruits during the post-harvest phase. Several studies reported that brown rot incidence during fruit development highly varies; it was found that at a period corresponding to the the pit hardening stage, fruit susceptibility drastically decreases, to be quickly restored afterwards. However the molecular basis of this phenomenon is still not well understood. Furthermore, no difference in the rot incidence was found between wound and un-wound fruits, suggesting that resistance associated more to a specifc biochemical response of the fruit, rather than to a higher mechanical resistance. So far, the interaction Monilinia-peach was analyzed through chemical approaches. In this study, a bio-molecular approach was undertaken in order to reveal alteration in gene expression associated to the variation of susceptibility. In this thesis three different methods for gene expression analysis were used to analyze the alterations in gene expression occurring in peach fruits during the pit hardening stage, in a period encompassing the temporary change in Monilinia susceptibility: real time PCR, microarray and cDNA AFLP techniques. In 2005, peach fruits (cv.K2) were weekly harvested during a 19-week long-period, starting from the fourth week after full bloom, until full maturity. At each sampling time, three replicates of 5 fruits each were dipped in the M.laxa conidial suspension or in distilled water, as negative control. The fruits were maintained at room temperature for 3 hours; afterwards, they were peeled with a scalpel; the peel was immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and transferred to -80 °C until use. The degree of susceptibility of peach fruit to the pathogen was determined on 3 replicates of 20 fruits each, as percentage of infected fruits, after one week at 20 °C. Real time PCR analysis was performed to study the variation in expression of those genes encoding for the enzymes of the phenylpropanoid pathway (phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), chalcone synthase (CHS), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), leucoanthocyanidine reductase (LAR), hydroxycinnamoyl CoA quinate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HQT) and of the jasmonate pathway, such as lipoxygenase (LOX), both involved in the production of important defense compounds. Alteration in gene expression was monitored on fruit samples of a period encompassing the pit hardening stage and the corresponding temporary resistance to M.laxa infections, weekly, from the 6thto the 12th week after full bloom (AFB) inoculated with M. laxa or mock-inoculated. The data suggest a critical change in the expression level of the phenylpropanoid pathway from the 7th to the 8th week AFB; such change could be directly physiologically associated to the peach growth and it could indirectly determine the decrease of susceptibility of peach fruit to Monilinia rot during the subsequent weeks. To investigate on the transcriptome variation underneath the temporary loss of susceptibility of peach fruits to Monilinia rot, the microarray and the cDNA AFLP techniques were used. The samples harvested on the 8th week AFB (named S, for susceptible ones) and on the 12th week AFB (named R, for resistant ones) were compared, both inoculated or mock-inoculated. The microarray experiments were carried out at the University of Padua (Dept. of Environmental Agronomy and Crop Science), using the μPEACH1.0 microarray together with the suited protocols. The analysis showed that 30 genes (corresponding to the 0.6% of the total sequences (4806) contained in the μPeach1.0 microarray) were found up-regulated and 31 ( 0.6%) down regulated in RH vs. SH fruits. On the other hand, 20 genes (0.4%) were shown to be up-regulated and 13 (0.3%) down-regulated in the RI vs. SI fruit. No genes were found differentially expressed in the mock-inoculated resistant fruits (RH) vs. the inoculated resistant ones (RI). Among the up-regulated genes an ATP sulfurylase, an heat shock protein 70, the major allergen Pru P1, an harpin inducing protein and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase were found, conversely among the down-regulated ones, cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase, an histidine- containing phosphotransfer protein and the ferritin were found. The microarray experimental results and the data indirectly derived, were tested by Real Time PCR analysis. cDNA AFLP analysis was also performed on the same samples. 339 transcript derived fragments considered significant for Monilinia resistance, were selected, sequenced and classified. Genes potentially involved in cell rescue and defence were well represented (8%); several genes (12.1%) involved in the protein folding, post-transductional modification and genes (9.2%) involved in cellular transport were also found. A further 10.3% of genes were classified as involved in the metabolism of aminoacid, carbohydrate and fatty acid. On the other hand, genes involved in the protein synthesis (5.7%) and in signal transduction and communication (5.7%) were found. Among the most interesting genes found differentially expressed between susceptible and resistant fruits, genes encoding for pathogenesis related (PR) proteins were found. To investigate on the association of Monilinia resistance and PR biological function, the major allergen Pru P1 (GenBank accession AM493970) and its isoform (here named Pru P2), were expressed in heterologous system and in vitro assayed for their anti-microbial activity. The ribonuclease activity of the recombinant Pru P1 and Pru P2 proteins was assayed against peach total RNA. As the other PR10 proteins, they showed a ribonucleolytic activity, that could be important to contrast pathogen penetration. Moreover Pru P1 and Pru P2 recombinant proteins were checked for direct antimicrobial activity. No inhibitory effect of Pru P1 or Pru P2 was detected against the selected fungi.

Bedeutung N- und C-terminaler Aminosäuren für die Monomer- und Dimerbildung von Lichtsammelproteinen des Photosystems I

Der LHCI-730 ist ein heterodimerer, Chlorophyll a/b-bindender Lichtsammelkomplex (LHC) des Photosystem I in höheren Pflanzen. Mit Hilfe rekombinanter, modifizierter Proteine wurde untersucht, welche terminalen Bereiche der Untereinheiten Lhca1 und Lhca4 für die Bildung von monomeren und dimeren Lichtsammelproteinen relevant sind. Durch PCR-Mutagenese modifizierte Apoproteine wurden in vitro mit Gesamtpigmentextrakt rekonstituiert und auf ihre Fähigkeit mono- bzw. dimere LHCs zu bilden untersucht.Für die Monomerbildung sind der extrinsische N-Terminus und die der amphipathischen vierten Helix folgenden Aminosäuren beider Proteine für die Faltung stabiler monomerer Pigmentproteinkomplexe nicht notwendig. Die Aminosäuren, mit deren Deletion die Monomerbildung an N- und C-Terminus verhindert wurde, verfügten über geladene (Glu, Asp), aromatische (Trp) oder neutrale Seitenketten (Leu).Die Untersuchungen zur Dimerbildung des LHCI-730 zeigten, daß am N-Terminus des Lhca1 nur bis zu einer Entfernung von drei Aminosäuren (Trp) eine Assemblierung der Untereinheiten möglich ist. Nur Phe (anstatt Trp) war in Substitutionsexperimenten im Vollängenprotein in der Lage, Dimere zu bilden. Das Ausbleiben der Dimerbildung der bis einschließlich zum Trp-39 und Ile-168 verkürzten Deletionsmutanten des Lhca4 ist vermutlich auf die Instabilität dieser Lhca4-Mutanten zurückzuführen. Die Deletion von Trp-185 am C-Terminus des Lhca1 führt zu einem Ausbleiben der Dimerbildung, die aber offensichtlich durch weitere, zuvor schon deletierte Aminosäuren beeinträchtigt wurde.

Insights in the maturation of pathogenic bacteria vaccine candidates using mass spectrometry based approaches

The study of the maturation process that occurs to a protein is of pivotal importance for the understanding of its function. This is true also in the vaccine field but in this case is also important to evaluate if inappropriate protein conformation and maturation play roles in the impairment of the functional immunogenicity of protein vaccines. Mass spectrometry (MS) is the method of choice for the study of the maturation process since each modification that occurs during the maturation will lead to a change in the mass of the entire protein. Therefore the aim of my thesis is the development of mass spectrometry-based approaches to study the maturation of proteins and the application of these methods to proteic vaccine candidates. The thesis is divided in two main parts. In the first part, I focused my attention on the study of the maturation of different vaccine candidates using native mass spectrometry. The analyses in this case have been performed using recombinant proteins produced in E. coli. In the second part I applied different MS strategies for the identification of unknown PTMs on pathogenic bacteria surface proteins since modified surface proteins are now considered for vaccine candidate selection.

Einfluss der Phosphorylierung durch die Casein Kinase II auf den HSP90-Chaperone-Zyklus in humanen Zellen

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine Analysenmethode auf Basis der Massenbestimmung über Elektrospray-Ionisation qualifiziert, mit der es möglich ist, den Gehalt beider in humanen Zellen vorliegenden isoformen Chaperone HSP90-alpha und HSP90-beta sowie deren Phosphorylierungsstatus in der sog. „charged linker“-Region (CLR) getrennt voneinander zu bestimmen. Die Quantifizierung dieser posttranslationalen Modifikation von HSP90 in der noch wenig untersuchten Region des Chaperons stellte eine besondere Herausforderung an das analytische Messsystem dar, da diese sich fast ausschließlich aus geladenen Aminosäuren zusammensetzt und eine hohe Sequenzhomologie der beiden Isoformen in humanen Zellen vorliegt. Mit dieser Methode ist es gelungen, sowohl die stärkere Expression beider Isoformen in Tumor-Zelllinien im Vergleich zu Nicht-Tumor-Zelllinien als auch signifikant höhere Level beider phosphorylierten Varianten in den Tumor-Zelllinien nachzuweisen. Des Weiteren konnte durch gezielte Arretierung der Tumor-Zelllinie HCT116 in der G0/G1-Phase des Zellzyklus der Nachweis erbracht werden, dass nur HSP90-alpha in diesem Ruhestadium der Zellteilung in der phosphorylierten Form vorliegt. rnDa die Phosphorylierung der CLR von HSP90 als ein Marker für die Substrataktivierung herangezogen werden kann, besteht jetzt die Möglichkeit, Auswirkungen von z. B. HSP90-Inhibitoren auf beide HSP90-Isoformen hinsichtlich ihrer Expression und Phosphorylierung durch die Casein Kinase II (CK II) im zellulären Umfeld zu testen.rnIn-vitro konnte die Phosphorylierung der CLR von HSP90-alpha und -beta mit der CK II an den rekombinant hergestellten Proteinen nachgestellt werden. Dieses typische Phosphorylierungs-Motiv (S-X-X-E/D) findet man bei sehr vielen Co-Chaperonen wie auch bei der Prostaglandin E Synthase p23, das ebenfalls durch eine in-vitro Kinase-Reaktion mit der CK II an drei Positionen phosphoryliert wurde. Durch ein Binde-Assay zeigte sich, dass p23 nur in dieser modifizierten Form an HSP90-alpha bindet. Das Bindeverhalten von p23 an die beta-Isoform wird durch diese Phosphorylierung jedoch nicht beeinflusst. Diese Erkenntnisse erweitern das Verständnis des bis dato beschriebenen Chaperon-Zyklus von HSP90 und zeigen deutliche Unterschiede in den Aktivierungszyklen beider Isoformen auf. Da die Casein Kinase II hier entscheidend in den durch HSP90 vermittelten Aktivierungsprozess eingreift, eröffnet sich ein weites Feld an Möglichkeiten, diese Prozesse an weiteren Co-Chaperonen und Substratproteinen zu studieren.rn

Bioverkapselung lebender Bakterien (Escherichia coli) mit Poly-(Silicat) nach Transformation mit dem Silicatein-alpha-Gen

Die Bioverkapselung ist eine faszinierende Methode, um biologische Materialien einschließlich Zellen in Siliziumdioxid, Metalloxiden oder hybriden Sol-Gel-Polymeren zu immobilisieren. Bisher wurde nur die Sol-Gel-Vorläufertechnologie genutzt, um Bakterien- oder Hefezellen in Siliziumdioxid zu immobilisieren. Hierfür wurden verschiedene Reagenzien als wässrige Vorläufer getestet, um poly(Silicate) auf Biomolekülen (Bhatia et al., 2000) oder Zellen (Liu und Chen 1999; Coradin und Livage, 2007) zu bilden. Einer der erfolgreichsten bisherigen Methoden verwendet eine Mischung aus Silicaten und kolloidalem Silica. Diese initialen Vorläufer werden durch die Zugabe von Salzsäure neutralisiert, was die Gelbildung fortschreiten lässt und die Verkapselung von Bakterien in einem Silica-Netzwerk zur Folge hat (Nassif et al., 2003). Mit der Entdeckung von Silicatein, einem Enzym, das aus Demospongien isoliert wurde und die Bildung von poly(Silicat) katalysiert, wurde es möglich, poly(Silicat) unter physiologischen Bedingungen zu synthetisieren. Silicatein wurde rekombinant in E. coli hergestellt und ist in der Lage, bei Raumtemperatur, neutralem pH-Wert und in wässrigen Puffersystemen aus Siliziumalkoxiden poly(Silicat) zu bilden (Krasko et al., 2000; Müller et al., 2007b; Zhou et al., 1999). In vivo katalysiert Silicatein die Synthese der Silicathülle der Schwamm-Spiculae (Skelettelemente; Müller et al., 2005b; Müller et al., 2007a; Müller et al., 2007b; Schröder et al., 2007a). Dieses Biosilica wurde in Form von Silica-Nanospheren mit Durchmessern zwischen 100 nm und 250 nm organisiert vorgefunden (Pisera 2003; Tahir et al., 2005). Mit dieser Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Escherichia coli erfolgreich mit dem Silicatein-Gen transformiert werden kann. Das Level der Proteinexpression kann in Anwesenheit von Isopropyl-β-D-thiogalaktopyranosid (IPTG) effizient erhöht werden, indem man die Bakterienzellen gleichzeitig mit Kieselsäure inkubiert. Dieser Effekt konnte sowohl auf Ebene der Synthese des rekombinanten Proteins durch Western Blot als auch durch Immunfluoreszenzmikroskopie nachgewiesen werden. Das heterolog produzierte Silicatein besitzt enzymatische Aktivität und kann die Polymerisation von Kieselsäure katalysieren. Dies konnte sowohl durch Färbung mit Rhodamin123, als auch durch Reaktion der nicht polymerisierten, freien Kieselsäure mit dem ß-Silicomolybdato-Farbsystem (Silicomolybdänblau) nachgewiesen werden. Elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen zeigten, dass nur die silicateinexprimierenden Bakterien während des Wachstums in Anwesenheit von Kieselsäure eine viskose Hülle um Zelle herum bilden. Ebenfalls konnte gezeigt werden, dass Silicatein-α aus Suberites domuncula nach Transformation in E. coli an die Zelloberfläche dieser Zellen transportiert wurde und dort seine enzymatische Funktion beibehielt. Die Silicathülle wurde mittels Raster-Elektronenmikroskopie (REM) analysiert. Die Bakterien, die Silicatein exprimierten und poly(Silicat) an ihrer Oberfläche synthetisierten, zeigten die gleichen Wachstumsraten wie die Bakterien, die das Gen nicht enthielten. Schlussfolgernd lässt sich sagen, dass die silicateinvermittelte Verkapselung von Bakterien mit poly(Silicat) die Bandbreite der Anwendung von Bakterien für die Produktion von rekombinanten Proteinen verbessern, erweitern und optimieren könnte.

Effect of repetitiveness on the immunogenicity and antigenicity of Trypanosoma cruzi FRA protein

Repetitive proteins (RP) of Trypanosoma cruzi are highly present in the parasite and are strongly recognized by sera from Chagas' disease patients. Flagelar Repetitive Antigen (FRA), which is expressed in all steps of the parasite life cycle, is the RP that displays the greatest number of aminoacids per repeat and has been indicated as one of the most suitable candidate for diagnostic test because of its high performance in immunoassays. Here we analyzed the influence of the number of repeats on the immunogenic and antigenic properties of the antigen. Recombinant proteins containing one, two, and four tandem repeats of FRA (FRA1, FRA2, and FRA4, respectively) were obtained and the immune response induced by an equal amount of repeats was evaluated in a mouse model. The reactivity of specific antibodies present in sera from patients naturally infected with T. cruzi was also assessed against FRA1, FRA2, and FRA4 proteins, and the relative avidity was analyzed. We determined that the number of repeats did not increase the humoral response against the antigen and this result was reproduced when the repeated motifs were alone or fused to a non-repetitive protein. By contrast, the binding affinity of specific human antibodies increases with the number of repeated motifs in FRA antigen. We then concluded that the high ability of FRA to be recognized by specific antibodies from infected individuals is mainly due to a favorable polyvalent interaction between the antigen and the antibodies. In accordance with experimental results, a 3D model was proposed and B epitope in FRA1, FRA2, and FRA4 were predicted.

Annexins as cell-type-specific markers in the developing chicken chorionallantoic membrane

Between day E8 and E12 of embryonic development, the chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) undergoes massive structural rearrangement enabling calcium-uptake from the eggshell to supply the growing embryo. However, the contribution of the various cell types of the chorionic epithelium including the capillary covering (CC) cells, villus cavity (VC) cells, endothelial-like cells, and basal cells to this developmental program is largely unknown. In order to obtain markers for the different cell types in the chorionic epithelium, we determined the expression patterns of various calcium-binding annexins in the developing chicken CAM. By reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction with primers deduced from nucleotide sequences available in various databases, the presence of annexin (anx)-1, anx-2, anx-5, and anx-6 was demonstrated at days E8 and E12. Quantitative immunoblotting with novel antibodies raised against the recombinant proteins revealed that anx-1 and anx-5 were significantly up-regulated at day E12, whereas anx-2 and anx-6 expression remained almost unchanged in comparison to levels at day E8. Immunohistochemistry of paraffin-embedded sections of E12 CAM revealed anx-1 in CC cells and VC cells. Anx-2 was localized in capillaries in the chorionic epithelium and in basal cells of the allantoic epithelium, whereas anx-6 was detected in basal cells or endothelial-like cells of the chorionic epithelium and in the media of larger vessels in the mesenchyme. A 2-day exposure of the CAM to a tumor cell spheroid resulted in strong proliferation of anx-1-expressing CC cells suggesting that these cells participate in the embryonic response to experimental intervention. Thus, annexins exhibit complementary expression patterns and represent appropriate cell markers for the further characterization of CAM development and the interpretation of results obtained when using CAM as an experimental model.

Sensitization to wasp venom does not induce autoantibodies leading to infertility

Antigenic cross-reactivity has been described between the venom allergen (antigen 5) and mammalian testis proteins. Based on an allergen database we have previously shown that allergens can be represented by allergen motifs. A motif group was found containing venom antigen 5 sequences from different vespids. Using an optimized amino acid profile based on antigen 5 sequences for searching cross-reactive proteins, three human semen proteins belonging to the family of cysteine-rich secretory proteins (hCRISP) were found in the Swiss Protein database. To analyze antigenic cross-reactivity between antigen 5 and hCRISPs, antigen 5 from yellow jacket venom (Ves v 5) and two hCRISPs (CRISP-2 and -3) were chosen and produced as recombinant proteins in E. coli. A correlation was found between antibodies reacting with rVes v 5 and rhCRISP-2, -3 in a small human sera population indicating the presence of cross-reactive antibodies in human serum. Using intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), a therapeutic multidonor IgG preparation, cross-reactive antibodies were isolated that recognize rVes v 5, hCRISP-2 and -3 suggesting the presence of common epitopes between Ves v 5 and hCRISPs. However this cross-reactivity seems not to be linked to allergy to wasp venom as we could show no correlation between increasing CAP-class IgE level to wasp venom and IgG to sperm extract and hCRISPs. These data suggest that higher sensitization to wasp venom does not induce more antibodies against autoantigens and might not represent a higher risk to develop autoantibodies leading to infertility.

Understanding the role of argininosuccinate lyase transcript variants in the clinical and biochemical variability of the urea cycle disorder argininosuccinic aciduria

Argininosuccinic aciduria (ASA) is an autosomal recessive urea cycle disorder caused by deficiency of argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) with a wide clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to severe hyperammonemic neonatal onset life-threatening courses. We investigated the role of ASL transcript variants in the clinical and biochemical variability of ASA. Recombinant proteins for ASL wild type, mutant p.E189G, and the frequently occurring transcript variants with exon 2 or 7 deletions were (co-)expressed in human embryonic kidney 293T cells. We found that exon 2-deleted ASL forms a stable truncated protein with no relevant activity but a dose-dependent dominant negative effect on enzymatic activity after co-expression with wild type or mutant ASL, whereas exon 7-deleted ASL is unstable but seems to have, nevertheless, a dominant negative effect on mutant ASL. These findings were supported by structural modeling predictions for ASL heterotetramer/homotetramer formation. Illustrating the physiological relevance, the predominant occurrence of exon 7-deleted ASL was found in two patients who were both heterozygous for the ASL mutant p.E189G. Our results suggest that ASL transcripts can contribute to the highly variable phenotype in ASA patients if expressed at high levels. Especially, the exon 2-deleted ASL variant may form a heterotetramer with wild type or mutant ASL, causing markedly reduced ASL activity.

Abnormal expression of REST/NRSF and Myc in neural stem/progenitor cells causes cerebellar tumors by blocking neuronal differentiation.

Medulloblastoma, one of the most malignant brain tumors in children, is thought to arise from undifferentiated neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs) present in the external granule layer of the cerebellum. However, the mechanism of tumorigenesis remains unknown for the majority of medulloblastomas. In this study, we found that many human medulloblastomas express significantly elevated levels of both myc oncogenes, regulators of neural progenitor proliferation, and REST/NRSF, a transcriptional repressor of neuronal differentiation genes. Previous studies have shown that neither c-Myc nor REST/NRSF alone could cause tumor formation. To determine whether c-Myc and REST/NRSF act together to cause medulloblastomas, we used a previously established cell line derived from external granule layer stem cells transduced with activated c-myc (NSC-M). These immortalized NSCs were able to differentiate into neurons in vitro. In contrast, when the cells were engineered to express a doxycycline-regulated REST/NRSF transgene (NSC-M-R), they no longer underwent terminal neuronal differentiation in vitro. When injected into intracranial locations in mice, the NSC-M cells did not form tumors either in the cerebellum or in the cerebral cortex. In contrast, the NSC-M-R cells did produce tumors in the cerebellum, the site of human medulloblastoma formation, but not when injected into the cerebral cortex. Furthermore, the NSC-M-R tumors were blocked from terminal neuronal differentiation. In addition, countering REST/NRSF function blocked the tumorigenic potential of NSC-M-R cells. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which abnormal expression of a sequence-specific DNA-binding transcriptional repressor has been shown to contribute directly to brain tumor formation. Our findings indicate that abnormal expression of REST/NRSF and Myc in NSCs causes cerebellum-specific tumors by blocking neuronal differentiation and thus maintaining the "stemness" of these cells. Furthermore, these results suggest that such a mechanism plays a role in the formation of human medulloblastoma.

Identification and phenotypic characterization of a second collagen adhesin, Scm, and genome-based identification and analysis of 13 other predicted MSCRAMMs, including four distinct pilus loci, in Enterococcus faecium.

Attention has recently been drawn to Enterococcus faecium because of an increasing number of nosocomial infections caused by this species and its resistance to multiple antibacterial agents. However, relatively little is known about the pathogenic determinants of this organism. We have previously identified a cell-wall-anchored collagen adhesin, Acm, produced by some isolates of E. faecium, and a secreted antigen, SagA, exhibiting broad-spectrum binding to extracellular matrix proteins. Here, we analysed the draft genome of strain TX0016 for potential microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs). Genome-based bioinformatics identified 22 predicted cell-wall-anchored E. faecium surface proteins (Fms), of which 15 (including Acm) had characteristics typical of MSCRAMMs, including predicted folding into a modular architecture with multiple immunoglobulin-like domains. Functional characterization of one [Fms10; redesignated second collagen adhesin of E. faecium (Scm)] revealed that recombinant Scm(65) (A- and B-domains) and Scm(36) (A-domain) bound to collagen type V efficiently in a concentration-dependent manner, bound considerably less to collagen type I and fibrinogen, and differed from Acm in their binding specificities to collagen types IV and V. Results from far-UV circular dichroism measurements of recombinant Scm(36) and of Acm(37) indicated that these proteins were rich in beta-sheets, supporting our folding predictions. Whole-cell ELISA and FACS analyses unambiguously demonstrated surface expression of Scm in most E. faecium isolates. Strikingly, 11 of the 15 predicted MSCRAMMs clustered in four loci, each with a class C sortase gene; nine of these showed similarity to Enterococcus faecalis Ebp pilus subunits and also contained motifs essential for pilus assembly. Antibodies against one of the predicted major pilus proteins, Fms9 (redesignated EbpC(fm)), detected a 'ladder' pattern of high-molecular-mass protein bands in a Western blot analysis of cell surface extracts from E. faecium, suggesting that EbpC(fm) is polymerized into a pilus structure. Further analysis of the transcripts of the corresponding gene cluster indicated that fms1 (ebpA(fm)), fms5 (ebpB(fm)) and ebpC(fm) are co-transcribed, a result consistent with those for pilus-encoding gene clusters of other Gram-positive bacteria. All 15 genes occurred frequently in 30 clinically derived diverse E. faecium isolates tested. The common occurrence of MSCRAMM- and pilus-encoding genes and the presence of a second collagen-binding protein may have important implications for our understanding of this emerging pathogen.

A family of fibrinogen-binding MSCRAMMs from Enterococcus faecalis.

We report that three (EF0089, EF2505 and EF1896, renamed here Fss1, Fss2 and Fss3, respectively, for Enterococcus faecalis surface protein) of the recently predicted MSCRAMMs (microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules) in E. faecalis strain V583 bind fibrinogen (Fg). Despite an absence of extensive primary sequence homology, the three proteins appear to be related structurally. Within the N-terminal regions of the three enterococcal proteins, we identified pairs of putative IgG-like modules with a high degree of predicted structural similarity to the Fg-binding N2 and N3 domains of the staphylococcal MSCRAMMs ClfA and SdrG. A second N2N3-like segment was predicted in Fss1. Far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed that all four predicted N2N3-like regions are composed mainly of beta-sheets with only a minor proportion of alpha-helices, which is characteristic of Ig-like folded domains. Three of the four identified enterococcal N2N3-like regions showed potent dose-dependent binding to Fg. However, the specificity of the Fg-binding MSCRAMMs differs, as indicated by far-Western blots, which showed that recombinant segments of the MSCRAMMs bound different Fg polypeptide chains. Enterococci grown in serum-supplemented broth adhere to Fg-coated surfaces, and inactivation in strain OG1RF of the gene encoding Fss2 resulted in reduced adherence, whilst complementation of the mutant restored full Fg adherence. Thus, E. faecalis contains a family of MSCRAMMs that structurally and functionally resemble the Fg-binding MSCRAMMs of staphylococci.

CART: an Hrs/actinin-4/BERP/myosin V protein complex required for efficient receptor recycling.

Altering the number of surface receptors can rapidly modulate cellular responses to extracellular signals. Some receptors, like the transferrin receptor (TfR), are constitutively internalized and recycled to the plasma membrane. Other receptors, like the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), are internalized after ligand binding and then ultimately degraded in the lysosome. Routing internalized receptors to different destinations suggests that distinct molecular mechanisms may direct their movement. Here, we report that the endosome-associated protein hrs is a subunit of a protein complex containing actinin-4, BERP, and myosin V that is necessary for efficient TfR recycling but not for EGFR degradation. The hrs/actinin-4/BERP/myosin V (CART [cytoskeleton-associated recycling or transport]) complex assembles in a linear manner and interrupting binding of any member to its neighbor produces an inhibition of transferrin recycling rate. Disrupting the CART complex results in shunting receptors to a slower recycling pathway that involves the recycling endosome. The novel CART complex may provide a molecular mechanism for the actin-dependence of rapid recycling of constitutively recycled plasma membrane receptors.

Role of the cytoplasmic domain in Anabaena sensory rhodopsin photocycling: vectoriality of Schiff base deprotonation.

Light-induced electric signals in intact E. coli cells generated by heterologously expressed full-length and C-terminally truncated versions of Anabaena sensory rhodopsin (ASR) demonstrate that the charge movements within the membrane-embedded part of the molecule are stringently controlled by the cytoplasmic domain. In particular, truncation inverts the direction of proton movement during Schiff base deprotonation from outward to cytoplasmic. Truncation also alters faster charge movements that occur before Schiff base deprotonation. Asp(217) as previously shown by FTIR serves as a proton acceptor in the truncated ASR but not in the full-length version, and its mutation to Asn restores the natural outward direction of proton movement. Introduction of a potential negative charge (Ser(86) to Asp) on the cytoplasmic side favors a cytoplasmic direction of proton release from the Schiff base. In contrast, mutation of the counterion Asp(75) to Glu reverses the photocurrent to the outward direction in the truncated pigment, and in both truncated and full-length versions accelerates Schiff base deprotonation more than 10-fold. The communication between the cytoplasmic domain and the membrane-embedded photoactive site of ASR demonstrated here is likely to derive from the receptor's use of a cytoplasmic protein for signal transduction, as has been suggested previously from binding studies.

Reduced vascular endothelial growth factor expression in contusive spinal cord injury.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is being investigated as a potential interventional therapy for spinal cord injury (SCI). In the current study, we examined SCI-induced changes in VEGF protein levels using Western blot analysis around the epicenter of injury. Our results indicate a significant decrease in the levels of VEGF(165) and other VEGF isoforms at the lesion epicenter 1 day after injury, which was maintained up to 1 month after injury. We also examined if robust VEGF(165) decrease in injured spinal cords affects neuronal survival, given that a number of reported studies show neuroprotective effect of this VEGF isoform. However, exogenously administered VEGF(165) at the time of injury did not affect the number of sparred neurons. In contrast, exogenous administration of VEGF antibody that inhibits actions of not only VEGF(165) but also of several other VEGF isoforms, significantly decreased number of sparred neurons after SCI. Together these results indicate a general reduction of VEGF isoforms following SCI and that isoforms other than VEGF(165) (e.g., VEGF(121) and/or VEGF(189)) provide neuroprotection, suggesting that VEGF(165) isoform is likely involved in other pathophysiological process after SCI.