Development of Cookstove Emissions and Performance Testing Suite with Time-resolved Particulate Matter Analysis and Excess Air Estimation

Thesis (Master's)--University of Washington, 2016-06

The short-term effects of air pollution on daily mortality in four Australian cities

Objective: To examine the short-term health effects of air pollution on daily mortality in four Australian cities (Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney), where more than 50% of Australians reside. Methods: The study used a similar protocol to APHEA2 (Air Pollution and Health: A European Approach) study and derived single-city and pooled estimates. Results: The results derived from the different approaches for the 1996-99 period showed consistent results for different statistical models used. There were significant effects on total mortality, (RR=1.0284 per 1 unit increase in nelphelometry [10(-4).m(-1)], RR=1.0011 per 1ppb increase in NO2), and on respiratory mortality (RR=1.0022 per 1ppb increase in O-2). No significant differences between cities were found, but the NO2 and particle effects may refer to the same impacts. Meta-analyses carried out for three cities yielded estimates for the increase in the daily total number of deaths of 0.2% (-0.8% to 1.2%) for a 10 mu g/m(3) increase in PM, concentration, and 0.9% (-0.7% to 2.5%) for a 10 mu g/m(3) increase in PM2.5 concentration. Conclusions: Air pollutants in Australian cities have significant effects on mortality.

Influence of the 23 October 2002 dust storm on the air quality of four Australian cities

Widespread drought and record maximum temperatures in eastern Australia produced a large dust storm on 23 October, 2002 which traversed a large proportion of eastern Australia and engulfed communities along a 2000 km stretch of coastline from south of Sydney ( NSW) to north of Mackay ( Queensland). This event provided an opportunity for a study of the impacts of rural dust upon the air quality of four Australian cities. A simple model is used to predict dust concentrations, dust deposition rates and particle size characteristics of the airborne dust in the cities. The total dust load of the plume was 3.35 to 4.85 million tones, and assuming a ( conservative) plume height of 1500 m, 62 - 90% of this dust load was deposited in-transit to the coast. It is conservatively estimated that 3.5, 12.0, 2.1 and 1.7 kilotonnes of dust were deposited during the event in Sydney, Brisbane, Gladstone and Mackay, respectively. In the South East Queensland region, this deposition is equivalent to 40% of the total annual TSP emissions for the region. The event increased TSP, PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations and reduced the visibility beyond the health and amenity guidelines in the four cities. For example, the 24-h average PM10 concentrations in Brisbane and Mackay, were 161 and 475 mu g m(-3) respectively, compared with the Australian national ambient air quality standard of 50 mu g m(-3). The 24-h average PM2.5 concentration in Brisbane was 42 mu g m(-3), compared with the national advisory standard of 25 mu g m(-3). These rural dusts significantly increased PM10/TSP ratios and decreased PM2.5/PM10 ratios, indicating that most of the particles were between PM2.5 and PM10.

Presenting SAPUSS: solving aerosol problem by using synergistic strategies in Barcelona, Spain

This paper presents the summary of the key objectives, instrumentation and logistic details, goals, and initial scientific findings of the European Marie Curie Action SAPUSS project carried out in the western Mediterranean Basin (WMB) during September-October in autumn 2010. The key SAPUSS objective is to deduce aerosol source characteristics and to understand the atmospheric processes responsible for their generations and transformations - both horizontally and vertically in the Mediterranean urban environment. In order to achieve so, the unique approach of SAPUSS is the concurrent measurements of aerosols with multiple techniques occurring simultaneously in six monitoring sites around the city of Barcelona (NE Spain): a main road traffic site, two urban background sites, a regional background site and two urban tower sites (150 m and 545 m above sea level, 150 m and 80 m above ground, respectively). SAPUSS allows us to advance our knowledge sensibly of the atmospheric chemistry and physics of the urban Mediterranean environment. This is well achieved only because of both the three dimensional spatial scale and the high sampling time resolution used. During SAPUSS different meteorological regimes were encountered, including warm Saharan, cold Atlantic, wet European and stagnant regional ones. The different meteorology of such regimes is herein described. Additionally, we report the trends of the parameters regulated by air quality purposes (both gaseous and aerosol mass concentrations); and we also compare the six monitoring sites. High levels of traffic-related gaseous pollutants were measured at the urban ground level monitoring sites, whereas layers of tropospheric ozone were recorded at tower levels. Particularly, tower level night-time average ozone concentrations (80 +/- 25 mu g m(-3)) were up to double compared to ground level ones. The examination of the vertical profiles clearly shows the predominant influence of NOx on ozone concentrations, and a source of ozone aloft. Analysis of the particulate matter (PM) mass concentrations shows an enhancement of coarse particles (PM2.5-10) at the urban ground level (+64 %, average 11.7 mu g m(-3)) but of fine ones (PM1) at urban tower level (+28 %, average 14.4 mu g m(-3)). These results show complex dynamics of the size-resolved PM mass at both horizontal and vertical levels of the study area. Preliminary modelling findings reveal an underestimation of the fine accumulation aerosols. In summary, this paper lays the foundation of SAPUSS, an integrated study of relevance to many other similar urban Mediterranean coastal environment sites.

Clean Cookstoves and Health in Samlout, Cambodia

This paper discusses results from a study of the use of cleaner cooking solutions and general health status of people in rural areas from the Battambang province of Cambodia. Data collection included 372 demographic, health and socio-economic surveys with households living in 6 villages in the Samlout district, general health examinations, and measurements of stove use and household concentrations of PM 2.5. The data reveal that health in this population is a major concern, with a very high prevalence of reported abdominal pain, nausea, chronic cough, chest pains, and fever during examinations.  At the household level, we find that clean stove ownership is significantly correlated with the educational status of household head and socio-economic status of a household. Respondents from households with clean stoves appear less likely (though not statistically significantly so) to report household individuals having health problems such as occasional cough, high blood pressure and tuberculosis. Concentrations of PM2.5 are positively correlated with prevalence of occasional cough, high blood pressure and tuberculosis. Based on these results, we advise field testing and evaluation of targeted health interventions in these villages to address the numerous concerns of the local population, including exploring the potential role of clean stoves.

Characterisation of atmospheric single particles in industrial and regional background environments using aerosol time of flight mass spectrometry

The composition of atmospheric particles is an important factor in determining their impact on climate and health. In this study, an aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer (ATOFMS) was used to measure the chemical composition of ambient single particles at two contrasting locations – an industrial site in Dunkirk, France and a regional background site in Corsica. The ATOFMS data were combined with meteorological information and other particle measurements to determine the various sources of the particles observed at the sites. The particle classes detected in Dunkirk included carbonaceous species from fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning, metal-containing types from local industries and seasalt. Highest particle number concentrations and mass concentrations of PM2.5, black carbon, organics, nitrate, ammonium and several metallic species (Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn) were found during periods heavily influenced by local industry. Particles from a ferromanganese alloy manufacturing facility were identified by comparing ambient ATOFMS data with single particle mass spectra from industrial chimney filters and ores. Particles from a steelworks were identified based on comparison of the ambient data with previous studies. Based on these comparisons, the steelworks was identified as the dominant emitter of Fe-rich particles, while the ferromanganese alloy facility emitted Mn-rich particles. In Corsica, regional transport of carbonaceous particles from biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion was identified as the major source of particles in the Mediterranean background aerosol. Throughout the campaign the site was influenced by air masses altering the composition of particles detected. During North Atlantic air masses the site was heavily influenced by fresh sea salt. Regional stagnation was the most common type of air mass regime throughout the campaign and resulted in the accumulation of carbonaceous particles during certain periods. Mass concentrations were estimated for ATOFMS particle classes, and good agreement was found between the major carbonaceous classes and other quantitative measurements. Overall the results of this work serve to highlight the excellent ability of the ATOFMS technique in providing source-specific composition and mixing state information on atmospheric particles at high time resolution.

Molecular composition of organic aerosols in central Amazonia: an ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry study

The Amazon Basin plays key role in atmospheric chemistry, biodiversity and climate change. In this study we applied nanoelectrospray (nanoESI) ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHRMS) for the analysis of the organic fraction of PM2.5 aerosol samples collected during dry and wet seasons at a site in central Amazonia receiving background air masses, biomass burning and urban pollution. Comprehensive mass spectral data evaluation methods (e.g. Kendrick mass defect, Van Krevelen diagrams, carbon oxidation state and aromaticity equivalent) were used to identify compound classes and mass distributions of the detected species. Nitrogen- and/or sulfur-containing organic species contributed up to 60 % of the total identified number of formulae. A large number of molecular formulae in organic aerosol (OA) were attributed to later-generation nitrogen- and sulfur-containing oxidation products, suggesting that OA composition is affected by biomass burning and other, potentially anthropogenic, sources. Isoprene-derived organosulfate (IEPOX-OS) was found to be the most dominant ion in most of the analysed samples and strongly followed the concentration trends of the gas-phase anthropogenic tracers confirming its mixed anthropogenic–biogenic origin. The presence of oxidised aromatic and nitro-aromatic compounds in the samples suggested a strong influence from biomass burning especially during the dry period. Aerosol samples from the dry period and under enhanced biomass burning conditions contained a large number of molecules with high carbon oxidation state and an increased number of aromatic compounds compared to that from the wet period. The results of this work demonstrate that the studied site is influenced not only by biogenic emissions from the forest but also by biomass burning and potentially other anthropogenic emissions from the neighbouring urban environments.

The CCRUSH Study: Coarse and fine particulate matter measurements in northeastern Colorado 2009-2012

Coarse (PM10-2.5) and fine (PM2.5) particulate matter in the atmosphere adversely affect human health and influence climate. While PM2.5 is relatively well studied, less is known about the sources and fate of PM10-2.5. The Colorado Coarse Rural-Urban Sources and Health (CCRUSH) study measured PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 mass concentrations, as well as the fraction of semi-volatile material (SVM) in each size regime (SVM2.5, SVM10-2.5), for three years in Denver and comparatively rural Greeley, Colorado. Agricultural operations east of Greeley appear to have contributed to the peak PM10-2.5 concentrations there, but concentrations were generally lower in Greeley than in Denver. Traffic-influenced sites in Denver had PM10-2.5 concentrations that averaged from 14.6 to 19.7 µg/m**3 and mean PM10-2.5/PM10 ratios of 0.56 to 0.70, higher than at residential sites in Denver or Greeley. PM10-2.5 concentrations were more temporally variable than PM2.5 concentrations. Concentrations of the two pollutants were not correlated. Spatial correlations of daily averaged PM10-2.5 concentrations ranged from 0.59 to 0.62 for pairs of sites in Denver and from 0.47 to 0.70 between Denver and Greeley. Compared to PM10-2.5, concentrations of PM2.5 were more correlated across sites within Denver and less correlated between Denver and Greeley. PM10-2.5 concentrations were highest during the summer and early fall, while PM2.5 and SVM2.5 concentrations peaked in winter during periodic multi-day inversions. SVM10-2.5 concentrations were low at all sites. Diurnal peaks in PM10-2.5 and PM2.5 concentrations corresponded to morning and afternoon peaks of traffic activity, and were enhanced by boundary layer dynamics. SVM2.5 concentrations peaked around noon on both weekdays and weekends. PM10-2.5 concentrations at sites located near highways generally increased with wind speeds above about 3 m/s. Little wind speed dependence was observed for the residential sites in Denver and Greeley.

Air Pollution and High Density Lipoprotein Structure and Function

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Occupational exposure to fungi and particles in animal feed industry

Background: Very few studies regarding fungal and particulate matter (PM) exposure in feed industry have been reported, although such contaminants are likely to be a significant contributing factor to several symptoms reported among workers. The purpose of this study has been to characterize fungal and dust exposure in one Portuguese feed industry. Material and Methods: Air and surface samples were collected and subject to further macro- and microscopic observations. In addition we collected other air samples in order to perform real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of genes from Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus complexes as well as Stachybotrys chartarum. Additionally, two exposure metrics were considered – particle mass concentration (PMC), measured in 5 different sizes (PM0.5, PM1, PM2.5, PM5, PM10), and particle number concentration (PNC) based on results given in 6 different sizes in terms of diameter (0.3 μm, 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2.5 μm, 5 μm and 10 μm). Results: Species from the Aspergillus fumigatus complex were the most abundant in air (46.6%) and in surfaces, Penicillium genus was the most frequently found (32%). The only DNA was detected from A. fumigatus complex. The most prevalent in dust samples were smaller particles which may reach deep into the respiratory system and trigger not only local effects but also the systemic ones. Conclusions: Future research work must be developed aiming at assessing the real health effects of these co-exposures.

Importance of size-selective particle measuring for assessing occupational exposures: a case study “from field to fork”

Sampling the total air concentration of particulate matter (PM) only provides a basic estimate of exposure that normally not allows correlating with the observed health effects. Therefore is of great importance to recognize the particles size distribution and, particularly, the exposure to fine particles (≤ 2.5 μm). This particles dimension corresponds to the respirable fraction, the one that can implicate local and systemic effects due to particle deposition and clearance from the lungs and transport within the organism. This study intended to describe occupational exposure to PM2.5 in three units related with swine production and consumption, namely: feed production, swine production and swine slaughterhouse. A size-selective particle measuring in five to six workplaces of each unit was performed. Measurements of PM were done using a portable direct-reading hand-held equipment (Lighthouse, model 3016 IAQ). Data showed slaughterhouse unit with higher values, with values ranging from 0.030 to 0.142 mg/m3 (0.073 + 0.043), being the cutting room the workplace with higher values. In feed production unit, values were between 0.026 and 0.033 mg/m3 (0.028 + 0.003) with the warehouse of pharmacy products as the workplace with higher values. Finally, in swine unit values ranged from 0.006 to 0.048 mg/m3 (0.023 + 0.017) with the batteries area presenting the higher values. PM can be rich in fungi and bacteria and their metabolites, such as endotoxins and mycotoxins. Previous publications already showed high contamination in these occupational settings and particles can have an important role in exposure since can easily act as carrier of these agents. Data acquired allow not only a better prediction of particle penetration into respiratory regions of the respiratory tract, but also a better estimation of PM health effects. Moreover, data permit to identify the workplaces where investment should be made to prevent and reduce exposure.

Estudo do aerossol (poeira do Sara) na região de Cabo Verde

No âmbito do projeto CV-DUST foi desenvolvida uma campanha de medição do aerossol atmosférico na Cidade da Praia (14° 55’ N, 23°29’ W), de janeiro de 2011 a janeiro de 2012. A concentração do aerossol foi determinada com base no método gravimétrico, com a amostragem feita em termos de PM10 e em frações granulométricas, usando impactores. Complementarmente, foi usado um contador ótico de partículas que permite a monitorização em contínuo e a classificação do número de partículas em 31 frações de tamanho na gama entre 0,25 e 32 μm. A composição química do aerossol foi determinada com incidência nos seguintes componentes: iões inorgânicos solúveis em água (Cl-, NO3-, SO42-, Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+ e Ca2+), carbonato total, elementos maioritários da crosta (Si, Na, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, K, Ti e Mn) e elementos vestigiais (Ba, Zn, Zr, Pb, Cu, Ce, Ni, Cr, V, Co, Sc, As, Sm e Sb), assim como a fração carbonácea (carbono elementar – EC e o carbono orgânico - OC). Durante a campanha, a concentração de PM10 apresentou uma grande variabilidade temporal, com valores médios (à escala diária) situados entre 10 μg/m3 e 507 μg/m3, sendo a concentração média anual estimada em cerca de 59 μg/m3. As concentrações mais elevadas (tipicamente acima dos 100 μg/m3) foram registadas durante os eventos de poeira proveniente do Norte de África, sendo os mais intensos observados nos meses de janeiro, fevereiro e dezembro de 2011. Os registos do contador ótico, feitos em intervalos de 5 min, revelaram que durante os eventos de poeira as concentrações médias horárias das partículas PM10 e PM2.5 podem ultrapassar os 700 μg/m3 e 200 μg/m3, respetivamente. Com base nos resultados do método ótico, as contribuições das frações granulométricas PM1, PM(1-2.5) e PM(2.5-10) para a massa de PM10 foram estimadas em cerca de 11 %, 28 % e 61 %, respetivamente. A composição química do aerossol varia consideravelmente ao longo do ano e revela a predominância das partículas minerais e do sal marinho. Com base em cálculos do balanço mássico das espécies químicas, as contribuições dos dois constituintes maioritários para a massa de PM10 foram estimadas em cerca de 47 % (partículas minerais) e 17 % (sal marinho). O aerossol secundário (NO3-, NH4+ e fração não marinha do SO42) e o aerossol carbonáceo (EC + OC) contribuem cada um com cerca de 4 % e 3 %, respetivamente. A fração mássica restante (cerca de 29 %), corresponde aos constituintes não analisados, podendo a água ser a mais importante neste grupo. A análise química das amostras segregadas por tamanho revela a seguinte composição para as partículas PM1, PM(1-2.5) e PM(2.5-10): 5,2, 11,8 e 20,7 % (constituintes do sal marinho); 8,6, 3,7 e 3,1 % (iões secundários); 8,9, 1,5 e 1,3 % (EC + OC).

Estudo numérico do impacto das emissões veiculares e fixas da cidade de Manaus nas concentrações de poluentes atmosféricos da região amazônica

The main aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of the urban pollution plume from the city of Manaus by emissions from mobile and stationary sources in the atmospheric pollutants concentrations of the Amazon region, by using The Weather Research and Forecasting with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) model. The air pollutants analyzed were CO, NOx, SO2, O3, PM2.5, PM10 and VOCs. The model simulations have been configured with a grid spacing of 3 km, with 190 x and 136 y grid points in horizontal spacing, centered in the city of Manaus during the period of 17 and 18 of March 2014. The anthropogenic emissions inventories have gathered from mobile sources that were estimated the emissions of light and heavy-duty vehicles classes. In addition, the stationary sources have considered the thermal power plants by the type of energy sources used in the region as well as the emissions from the refinery located in Manaus. Various scenarios have been defined with numerical experiments that considered only emissions by biogenic, mobile and stationary sources, and replacement fuel from thermal power plant, along with a future scenario consisting with twice as much anthropogenic emissions. A qualitative assessment of simulation with base scenario has also been carried out, which represents the conditions of the region in its current state, where several statistical methods were used in order to compare the results of air pollutants and meteorological fields with observed ground-based data located in various points in the study grid. The qualitative analysis showed that the model represents satisfactorily the variables analyzed from the point of view of the adopted parameters. Regarding the simulations, defined from the base scenarios, the numerical experiments indicate relevant results such as: it was found that the stationary sources scenario, where the thermal power plants are predominant, resulted in the highest concentrations, for all air pollutants evaluated, except for carbon monoxide when compared to the vehicle emissions scenario; The replacement of the energy matrix of current thermal power plants for natural gas have showed significant reductions in pollutants analyzed, for instance, 63% reductions of NOx in the contribution of average concentration in the study grid; A significant increase in the concentrations of chemical species was observed in a futuristic scenario, reaching up to a 81% increase in peak concentrations of SO2 in the study area. The spatial distributions of the scenarios have showed that the air pollution plume from Manaus is predominantly west and southwest, where it can reach hundreds of kilometers to areas dominated by original soil covering.

Comparison of indoor and outdoor fungi and particles in poultry units

A descriptive study was developed in order to compare indoor and outdoor air contamination caused by fungi and particles in seven poultry units. Twenty eight air samples of 25 litters were collected through the impaction method on malt extract agar. Air sampling and particles concentration measurement were done in the interior and also outside premises of the poultries’ pavilions. Regarding the fungal load in the air, indoor concentration of mold was higher than outside air in six poultry units. Twenty eight species / genera of fungi were identified indoor, being Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (40.5%) the most commonly isolated species and Rhizopus sp. (30.0%) the most commonly isolated genus. Concerning outdoor, eighteen species/genera of fungi were isolated, being Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (62.6%) also the most isolated. All the poultry farms analyzed presented indoor fungi different from the ones identified outdoors. Regarding particles’ contamination, PM2.5, PM5.0 and PM10 had a statistically significant difference (Mann-Whitney U test) between the inside and outside of the pavilions, with the inside more contaminated (p=.006; p=.005; p=.005, respectively). The analyzed poultry units are potential reservoirs of substantial amounts of fungi and particles and could therefore free them in the atmospheric air. The developed study showed that indoor air was more contaminated than outdoors, and this can result in emission of potentially pathogenic fungi and particles via aerosols from poultry units to the environment, which may post a considerable risk to public health and contribute to environmental pollution.

Avaliação inorgânica de material particulado atmosférico inalável na região norte do Paraná

This study aimed to determine the concentration and inorganic chemical composition of samples from airborne particulate matter inhaled in fine and coarse fractions. Aerosol samples were collected in 2013 and 2014, from sites located in the cities of Londrina and Maringa, in the state of Paraná, Brazil. The samples were collected daily (24h) in two campaigns: winter and summer. For the collection, was used a dichotomous sampler with quartz fiber filter with 47 mm in size and 2 µm porosity, 97% efficiency, retaining particles of up to 0.3 µm. Quantification of the airborne particulate matter mass was performed by gravimetry method. The results from Londrina to PM2.5 and MP2,5-10 represent, respectively, 29.2% and 70.8% of airborne particulate matter in the winter campaign (2013), 30.9% (PM2.5) and 69.1 % (MP2,5-10) in the summer campaign (2013), and 35.9% (PM2.5) and 64.1% (MP2,5-10) in the winter 2014 campaign. In the city of Maringa, the results presented the percentage of 42.0% (PM2.5) and 58.0% (MP2,5-10) for the winter season (2014), and 28.8% (PM2.5) and 71.2 % (MP2,5-10) for the summer season (2014). The PM2.5/PM10 ratio was on average 0.3, demonstrating that both cities are developing urban areas. Analysis of the major soluble inorganic species in water (NO3-, SO42- and Cl-) associated with MP2,5-10 were quantified by ion chromatography at the LACA Laboratory in the State University of Londrina, with the largest contribution found in all campaigns was to NO3-. The NO3-/SO42- ratios above 1.0 indicate the local traffic contribution. The analysis of metals associated with PM2.5 was carried out by mass spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (ICP-MS) in the Federal University of Santa Catarina. The Zn, Pb, Cu and Mn concentrations found in all campaigns indicate the contribution of mobile sources to PM2.5. The concentration of BCe in PM2.5 was determined by reflectance, with higher BCe concentrations being found in winter campaigns. In general, Londrina presented the highest concentrations from the species analyzed when compared to Maringá. In addition, the analysis of the air mass trajectories indicated the transportation of pollutants coming mainly from fires in the southeastern region of the country.