Impactos da imigração no mercado de trabalho brasileiro

Diante da importância que o tema da imigração adquiriu no país nos últimos anos, gerou-se uma necessidade de melhor entendimento dos efeitos econômicos causados por influxos populacionais dessa natureza. Todavia, sob o conhecimento dos autores, inexistem estudos para história recente brasileira acerca dos impactos dos imigrantes no mercado de trabalho, em especial, sobre o salário e o nível de emprego dos nativos. Com esse panorama em mente, os estudos realizados nesta tese visam dar os primeiros passos na investigação desse tema. O presente trabalho é composto por quatro capítulos, os quais examinam diferentes questões associadas aos efeitos da imigração no mercado de trabalho brasileiro. O primeiro capítulo motiva o tema da imigração no Brasil e, através de uma metodologia estrutural baseada no arcabouço da função CES multi-nível, simula o efeito na estrutura salarial em resposta a influxos imigratórios estipulados para o ano de 2010, data do último Censo Demográfico. Em particular, calcula-se que o impacto salarial médio decorrente de um influxo estipulado de 549 mil imigrantes, mesma magnitude do observado entre dezembro de 2010 e dezembro de 2011, estaria situado em torno de -0.25%. O segundo capítulo estima o grau de substituição entre imigrantes e nativos do mesmo grupo de habilidade e testa a hipótese de substituição perfeita suportada empiricamente por Borjas et al. (2012, 2008) e adotada no capítulo anterior. A metodologia empregada fundamenta-se no arcabouço estrutural desenvolvido em Manacorda et al. (2012) e Ottaviano & Peri (2012), o qual acrescenta um nível extra na função de produção CES multi-nível de Borjas (2003). As elasticidades de substituição estimadas sob diversas especificações variam entre 9 e 23, resultados que fortalecem a tese de substituição imperfeita preconizada por Card (2012). O terceiro capítulo estima dois tipos de elasticidades relacionadas ao impacto dos imigrantes sobre o rendimento do trabalho nativo através de uma metodologia alternativa baseada numa função de produção mais flexível e que não está sujeita a restrições tão austeras quanto a CES. As estimativas computadas para as elasticidades de substituição de Hicks subjacentes se situam entre 1.3 e 4.9, o que reforça as evidências de substituição imperfeita obtidas no Capítulo 2. Adicionalmente, os valores estimados para as elasticidades brutas dos salários dos nativos em relação às quantidades de imigrantes na produção são da ordem máxima de +-0.01. O quarto e último capítulo, por meio de uma metodologia fundamentada no arcabouço da função de custo Translog, examina como o nível de emprego dos nativos reage a alterações no custo do trabalho imigrante, uma questão que até o momento recebeu pouca atenção da literatura, conquanto apresente relevância para formulação de políticas imigratórias. Para todas as especificações de modelo e grupos de educação considerados, nossos resultados apontam que uma variação exógena no salário do imigrante produz apenas diminutos efeitos sobre o nível de emprego dos trabalhadores nativos brasileiros. Na maioria dos casos, não se pode rejeitar a hipótese de que nativo e imigrante não são nem p-complementares nem p-substitutos líquidos.

Three Essays in Economics of Gender

During recent decades, economists' interest in gender-related issues has risen. Researchers aim to show how economic theory can be applied to gender related topics such as peer effect, labor market outcomes, and education. This dissertation aims to contribute to our understandings of the interaction, inequality and sources of differences across genders, and it consists of three empirical papers in the research area of gender economics. The aim of the first paper ("Separating gender composition effect from peer effects in education") is to demonstrate the importance of considering endogenous peer effects in order to identify gender composition effect. This fact is analytically illustrated by employing Manski's (1993) linear-in-means model. The paper derives an innovative solution to the simultaneous identification of endogenous and exogenous peer effects: gender composition effect of interest is estimated from auxiliary reduced-form estimates after identifying the endogenous peer effect by using Graham (2008) variance restriction method. The paper applies this methodology to two different data sets from American and Italian schools. The motivation of the second paper ("Gender differences in vulnerability to an economic crisis") is to analyze the different effect of recent economic crisis on the labor market outcome of men and women. Using triple differences method (before-after crisis, harder-milder hit sectors, men-women) the paper used British data at the occupation level and shows that men suffer more than women in terms of probability of losing their job. Several explanations for the findings are proposed. The third paper ("Gender gap in educational outcome") is concerned with a controversial academic debate on the existence, degree and origin of the gender gap in test scores. The existence of a gap both in mean scores and the variability around the mean is documented and analyzed. The origins of the gap are investigated by looking at wide range of possible explanations.

Monopsony Power, Pay Structure and Training

Although interest in monopsonistic influences on labor market outcomes has revived in recent years, only a few empirical studies provide direct evidence on this topic. In this article, the authors analyze the effect of monopsony power on pay structure, using a direct measure of labor market thinness. The authors find evidence of monopsony power, as firms facing fewer local competitors offer lower wages to skilled labor and trainees, but not to unskilled labor. The findings have important implications for the economic theory of training, as most recent models assume monopsonistic pay-setting for skilled labor, but not for trainees.

Identifying Individual and Group Effects in the Presence of Sorting: A Neighborhood Effects Application

Researchers have long recognized that the non-random sorting of individuals into groups generates correlation between individual and group attributes that is likely to bias naive estimates of both individual and group effects. This paper proposes a non-parametric strategy for identifying these effects in a model that allows for both individual and group unobservables, applying this strategy to the estimation of neighborhood effects on labor market outcomes. The first part of this strategy is guided by a robust feature of the equilibrium in the canonical vertical sorting model of Epple and Platt (1998), that there is a monotonic relationship between neighborhood housing prices and neighborhood quality. This implies that under certain conditions a non- parametric function of neighborhood housing prices serves as a suitable control function for the neighborhood unobservable in the labor market outcome regression. The second part of the proposed strategy uses aggregation to develop suitable instruments for both exogenous and endogenous group attributes. Instrumenting for each individual's observed neighborhood attributes with the average neighborhood attributes of a set of observationally identical individuals eliminates the portion of the variation in neighborhood attributes due to sorting on unobserved individual attributes. The neighborhood effects application is based on confidential microdata from the 1990 Decennial Census for the Boston MSA. The results imply that the direct effects of geographic proximity to jobs, neighborhood poverty rates, and average neighborhood education are substantially larger than the conditional correlations identified using OLS, although the net effect of neighborhood quality on labor market outcomes remains small. These findings are robust across a wide variety of specifications and robustness checks.

Are Shirking and Leisure Substitutable? An Empirical Test of Efficiency Wages Based on Urban Economic Theory

Recent theoretical work has examined the spatial distribution of unemployment using the efficiency wage model as the mechanism by which unemployment arises in the urban economy. This paper extends the standard efficiency wage model in order to allow for behavioral substitution between leisure time at home and effort at work. In equilibrium, residing at a location with a long commute affects the time available for leisure at home and therefore affects the trade-off between effort at work and risk of unemployment. This model implies an empirical relationship between expected commutes and labor market outcomes, which is tested using the Public Use Microdata sample of the 2000 U.S. Decennial Census. The empirical results suggest that efficiency wages operate primarily for blue collar workers, i.e. workers who tend to be in occupations that face higher levels of supervision. For this subset of workers, longer commutes imply higher levels of unemployment and higher wages, which are both consistent with shirking and leisure being substitutable.

Trajetórias ocupacionais de engenheiros jovens no Brasil.

Esta tese analisa 9.041 trajetórias ocupacionais de jovens engenheiros como empregados formais no Brasil entre 2003-2012, a partir da técnica de Optimal Matching Analysis (OMA). Estas trajetórias foram comparadas às de uma geração anterior de jovens engenheiros, tanto em seu período-base (1995-2002) como entre 2003-2012, a fim de identificar efeitos de idade e período. Os principais resultados são: (i) conforme esperado, trajetórias ocupacionais ligadas à gestão (em áreas correlatas à engenharia ou não) são as que oferecem remuneração mais alta em todos os períodos analisados; (ii) nos anos 2000, o terceiro padrão mais atrativo para os jovens daquela geração foi permanecer como engenheiro típico, caminho perseguido por praticamente metade deles, enquanto tal atratividade não foi verificada nos anos 1990; (iii) o salário de entrada dos jovens engenheiros subiu 24% em termos reais entre 1995 e 2003; (iv) há pouca mobilidade de trajetória ocupacional por parte da geração dos engenheiros de 1995 após 2003; (v) os jovens engenheiros de 1995 que permaneceram como engenheiros típicos durante os anos 2000 chegaram a 2012 ganhando apenas 14% a mais do que os jovens engenheiros de 2003 (com 8 anos a menos de experiência); para comparação, os gestores da geração 90 ganhavam em torno de 50% a mais do que os da geração 2000; (vi) há dois momentos de definição de trajetória ocupacional: um primeiro ocorre até 3 anos após o primeiro emprego, mas promoções a cargos de gestão podem ocorrer entre 8 e 10 anos. Estes resultados indicam que, se por um lado houve uma revalorização dos profissionais de engenharia na última década, por outro lado esta revalorização não trouxe engenheiros anteriormente formados a carreiras típicas em engenharia. Isto, aliado à baixa demanda pelos cursos de engenharia durante os anos 80 e 90, corrobora a hipótese de um hiato geracional entre os engenheiros, documentado em artigos anteriores.

Continuous Off-the-Job Training in East Germany After Unification: Preliminary Results of an Evaluation of the Effects for Individual Workers, CES Germany & Europe Working Papers, No. 05.9, 19 July, 1995

Retraining the labor force to match the demands of a modem economy is seen as an important task during the transition process from a centrally-planned to a market economy. This need was particularly pressing in East Germany, because the transition process has proceeded much faster than in the rest of Eastern Europe. Therefore, substantial resources have been devoted to this purpose. This paper analyzes the impact of continuous off-the-job training in East Germany from the point of view of individuals who were part of the labor force before German unification in 1990. It tries to answer questions about the average gains from participating in a specific type of training. Typical outcomes considered to measure those gains are income, employment status, job security, and expected future changes in job position. The methodology used for the evaluation is the potential outcome approach to causality. This approach has received considerable attention in the statistical literature over the last fifteen years and it has recently been rediscovered by the econometric literature as well. It is adapted to allow for important permanent and transitory shocks, such as unemployment, which influence the decision to participate in the training as well as future labor market outcomes. The empirical part is based on the first four waves of the Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP)-East (1990-1993). This panel data set has the advantage that the fourth wave contains a special survey on continuous training and that it allows keeping track of individual behavior on a monthly, respectively yearly, basis. The econometric analysis focuses on off-the-job training courses that began after unification and were completed not later than in early 1993. Although it is obviously too early to evaluate the long-term implications, the results suggest that there are no positive effects in the short run.

Educación superior y competencias para el empleo. El punto de vista de los empresarios

La relevancia del conocimiento como input del proceso productivo ha aumentado la complejidad de la contratación en el mercado de trabajo cualificado. Como consecuencia de ello, se ha generado un proceso de reflexión sobre la adecuación de la acreditación universitaria a las necesidades del mercado de trabajo. Académicos, gerentes y expertos en el mercado de trabajadores altamente cualificados han tenido parte en esta reflexión durante mucho tiempo. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo la identificación de las competencias profesionales con mayor relevancia en la empleabilidad de los graduados en Economía y Empresa. El análisis se basa en una investigación cualitativa que toma como fuentes de información las opiniones de los empleadores. La información para el estudio ha sido obtenida mediante entrevistas en profundidad y la realización de un grupo de discusión. En este proceso han participado empresarios, responsables del servicio de prácticas de la Universidad de Barcelona, expertos y responsables de empresa de colocación, representantes de organizaciones empresariales y profesores universitarios. La atención se centra en la percepción que los entrevistados tienen del requerimiento de conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes, en el grado en que los desarrollan y en los cambios que se necesitarían para lograr una mejor correspondencia entre las competencias adquiridas por los graduados y las requeridas por el mercado de trabajo. A partir de la clasificación de las competencias profesionales (proyecto Tuning), el estudio pone de relieve la importancia otorgada por los empleadores a de las competencias genéricas. No obstante, se observan diferencias valorativas según la tipología de empresas. Asimismo, se evidencian déficits en algunos aspectos relevantes, como la formación práctica y la capacidad de iniciativa, de análisis o de organización. Por último, de las opiniones recogidas también se constata la necesidad de aproximar la universidad al sistema productivo, al menos en el campo económico-empresarial.

An analysis of occupational outcomes for Indigenous and Asian employees in Australia

This paper examines occupational performance in Australia across three racial groups in Australia: Indigenous Australians; Asian people, defined as all those whose language spoken at home was either Chinese, Vietnamese or other forms of a South-east or East Asian language; and white people, defined as the residual category. The paper has as its starting point, observed differences in occupational attainment among the three groups in Australia and sets out to account for these observed differences on the basis of both race and non-racial attributes such as, age, education and area of residence.

Financial development, labor and market regulations and growth

This paper investigates the importance that market regulation and financial imperfections have on firm growth. We analyse institutions af- fecting labor market as Employment Protection Laws (EP) and Product Market Regulation (PM). We show that together with the beneficial effects of financial development, a firm will get less financing, and thus investless, in a weak financial market (finance effect), the strictness of product and labor market regulations also affect firm growth (labor effect). In particular, we show that the stricter the rules the more detrimental the influence on growth in sectoral value added for a large number of countries. We also show that the labor effect overcomes the positive finance effect.

The rise and fall of piecework–timework wage differentials: market volatility, labor heterogeneity, and output pricing

Based on detailed payroll data of blue collar male and female labor in Britain’s engineering and metal working industrial sectors between the mid-1920s and mid-1960s, we provide empirical evidence in respect of several central themes in the piecework-timework wage literature. The period covers part of the heyday of pieceworking as well as the start of its post-war decline. We show the importance of relative piece rate flexibility during the Great Depression as well as during the build up to WWII and during the war itself. We account for the very significant decline in the differentials after the war. Labor market topics include piecework pay in respect of compensating differentials, labor heterogeneity, and the transaction costs of pricing piecework output.

Employment risk, unemployment insurance and search strategies: a disaggregated equilibrium approach with application to the Swiss labour market in the 1990-ies

The Organization of the Thesis The remainder of the thesis comprises five chapters and a conclusion. The next chapter formalizes the envisioned theory into a tractable model. Section 2.2 presents a formal description of the model economy: the individual heterogeneity, the individual objective, the UI setting, the population dynamics and the equilibrium. The welfare and efficiency criteria for qualifying various equilibrium outcomes are proposed in section 2.3. The fourth section shows how the model-generated information can be computed. Chapter 3 transposes the model from chapter 2 in conditions that enable its use in the analysis of individual labor market strategies and their implications for the labor market equilibrium. In section 3.2 the Swiss labor market data sets, stylized facts, and the UI system are presented. The third section outlines and motivates the parameterization method. In section 3.4 the model's replication ability is evaluated and some aspects of the parameter choice are discussed. Numerical solution issues can be found in the appendix. Chapter 4 examines the determinants of search-strategic behavior in the model economy and its implications for the labor market aggregates. In section 4.2, the unemployment duration distribution is examined and related to search strategies. Section 4.3 shows how the search- strategic behavior is influenced by the UI eligibility and section 4.4 how it is determined by individual heterogeneity. The composition effects generated by search strategies in labor market aggregates are examined in section 4.5. The last section evaluates the model's replication of empirical unemployment escape frequencies reported in Sheldon [67]. Chapter 5 applies the model economy to examine the effects on the labor market equilibrium of shocks to the labor market risk structure, to the deep underlying labor market structure and to the UI setting. Section 5.2 examines the effects of the labor market risk structure on the labor market equilibrium and the labor market strategic behavior. The effects of alterations in the labor market deep economic structural parameters, i.e. individual preferences and production technology, are shown in Section 5.3. Finally, the UI setting impacts on the labor market are studied in Section 5.4. This section also evaluates the role of the UI authority monitoring and the differences in the Way changes in the replacement rate and the UI benefit duration affect the labor market. In chapter 6 the model economy is applied in counterfactual experiments to assess several aspects of the Swiss labor market movements in the nineties. Section 6.2 examines the two equilibria characterizing the Swiss labor market in the nineties, the " growth" equilibrium with a "moderate" UI regime and the "recession" equilibrium with a more "generous" UI. Section 6.3 evaluates the isolated effects of the structural shocks, while the isolated effects of the UI reforms are analyzed in section 6.4. Particular dimensions of the UI reforms, the duration, replacement rate and the tax rate effects, are studied in section 6.5, while labor market equilibria without benefits are evaluated in section 6.6. In section 6.7 the structural and institutional interactions that may act as unemployment amplifiers are discussed in view of the obtained results. A welfare analysis based on individual welfare in different structural and UI settings is presented in the eighth section. Finally, the results are related to more favorable unemployment trends after 1997. The conclusion evaluates the features embodied in the model economy with respect to the resulting model dynamics to derive lessons from the model design." The thesis ends by proposing guidelines for future improvements of the model and directions for further research.

On the design of education conditional cash transfer programs and non education outcomes: the case of teenage pregnancy

We investigate the effect of education Conditional Cash Transfer programs (CCTs) on teenage pregnancy. Our main concern is with how the size and sign of the effect may depend on the design of the program. Using a simple model we show that an education CCT that conditions renewal on school performance reduces teenage pregnancy; the program can increase teenage pregnancy if it does not condition on school performance. Then, using an original data base, we estimate the causal impact on teenage pregnancy of two education CCTs implemented in Bogot´a (Subsidio Educativo, SE, and Familias en Acci´on, FA); both programs differ particularly on whether school success is a condition for renewal or not. We show that SE has negative average effect on teenage pregnancy while FA has a null average effect. We also find that SE has either null or no effect for adolescents in all age and grade groups while FA has positive, null or negative effects for adolescents in different age and grade groups. Since SE conditions renewal on school success and FA does not, we can argue that the empirical results are consistent with the predictions of our model and that conditioning renewal of the subsidy on school success crucially determines the effect of the subsidy on teenage pregnancy

Child labor and learning

This paper investigates the impact of working while in school on learning outcomes through the use of a unique micro panel dataset of Brazilian students. The potential endogeneity is addressed through the use of di erence-in-di erence and instrumental variable estimators. A negative e ect of working on learning outcomes in both math and Portuguese is found. The e ects of child work range from 3% to 8% of a standard deviation decline in test score which represents a loss of about a quarter to a half of a year of learning on average. We also explore the minimum legal age to entry in the labor market to induce an exogenous variation in child labor status. The results reinforce the detrimental e ects of child labor on learning. Additionally, it is found that this e ect is likely due to the interference of work with the time kids can devote to school and school work.

Facets of Gender : Analyses of the Family and the Labour Market

This thesis contains four different studies on the dynamics of gender in households and workplaces. The relationship between family life and work life is in focus, particularly in the paper on labour market outcomes after divorce. In the introductory chapter, the Swedish context is briefly described. The description focuses on gender differences in the labour market and in the home. Theories concerning the division of work in the household are discussed, as are two theories on labour market discrimination, viz. taste discrimination and statistical discrimination. The theory part is concluded with a discussion of social closure processes and gendered organizational structures. The Reproduction of Gender. Housework and Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in the Home Among Swedish Boys and Girls. The housework boys and girls age 10 to 18 do, and their attitudes towards gender equality in the home are studied. One aim is to see whether the work children do is gendered and if so, whether they follow their parents’, often gendered, pattern in housework. A second aim is to see whether parents’ division of work is related to the children’s attitude towards gender equality in the home. The data used are taken from the Swedish Child Level of Living Survey (Child-LNU) 2000. Results indicate that girls and boys in two-parent families are more prone to engage in gender-atypical work the more their parent of the same sex engages in this kind of work. The fact that girls still do more housework than boys indicates that housework is gendered work also among children. No relation between parents’ division of work and the child’s attitude towards gender equality in the home was found. Dependence within Families and the Household Division of Labor – A Comparison between Sweden and the United States. This paper assesses the relative explanatory value of the resource-bargaining perspective and the doing-gender approach in analysing the division of housework in the United States and Sweden from the mid-1970s to 2000. Data from the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) and the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) were used. Overall results indicate that housework is truly gendered work in both countries during the entire period. Even so, the results also indicate that gender deviance neutralization is more pronounced in the United States than in Sweden. Unlike Swedish women, American women seem to increase their time spent in housework when their husbands are to some extent economically dependent on them, as if to neutralize the presumed gender deviance. Divorce and Labour Market Outcomes. Do Women Suffer or Gain? In this paper, the interconnected nature of work and family is studied by looking at labour market outcomes after divorce. The data used are retrospective work and family histories collected in LNU 1991. A hazard regression model with competing risks reveals that women’s chances of improving their occupational prestige appear to be better after divorce compared to before. Increased working hours and perhaps also increased energy invested in the job may pay off in better occupational opportunities. Worth noting, however, is that the outcome among women with a less firm labour market attachment is more often to a job of lower prestige than one of higher prestige. Hence, the labour market outcome for women after divorce is to some extent conditioned by their labour market attachment at the time of divorce. Men, on the other hand, in most cases seem to suffer occupationally from divorce. For separated men the risk of negative changes in occupational prestige is greater than for cohabiting men. Formal On-the-job Training. A Gender-Typed Experience and Wage- Related Advantage? Formal on-the-job training (FOJT) can have a positive impact on wages and on promotion opportunities. According to theory and earlier research, a two-step model of gender inequality in FOJT is predicted: First, women are less likely than men to take part in FOJT and, second, once women do get the more remunerative training, they are not rewarded for their new skills to the same extent as men are. Pooled cross-sectional data from the Swedish Survey of Living Conditions (ULF) in the mid-nineties were used. Results show that women are significantly less likely than men to take part in FOJT. Among those who do receive training, women are more likely to take part in industry-specific training, whereas men are more likely to participate in general training and training that increases promotion opportunities. The two latter forms of training significantly raise a man’s annual earnings but not a woman’s. Hence, the theoretical model is supported and it is argued that this gender inequality is partly due to employers’ discriminatory practices.