solaR: Solar Radiation and Photovoltaic Systems with R

The solaR package allows for reproducible research both for photovoltaics (PV) systems performance and solar radiation. It includes a set of classes, methods and functions to calculate the sun geometry and the solar radiation incident on a photovoltaic generator and to simulate the performance of several applications of the photovoltaic energy. This package performs the whole calculation procedure from both daily and intradaily global horizontal irradiation to the final productivity of grid-connected PV systems and water pumping PV systems. It is designed using a set of S4 classes whose core is a group of slots with multivariate time series. The classes share a variety of methods to access the information and several visualization methods. In addition, the package provides a tool for the visual statistical analysis of the performance of a large PV plant composed of several systems. Although solaR is primarily designed for time series associated to a location defined by its latitude/longitude values and the temperature and irradiation conditions, it can be easily combined with spatial packages for space-time analysis.

Towards cost reduction in concentrating solar power: innovative design for an efficient fresnel based solar field

Energía termosolar (de concentración) es uno de los nombres que hacen referencia en español al término inglés “concentrating solar power”. Se trata de una tecnología basada en la captura de la potencia térmica de la radiación solar, de forma que permita alcanzar temperaturas capaces de alimentar un ciclo termodinámico convencional (o avanzado); el futuro de esta tecnología depende principalmente de su capacidad para concentrar la radiación solar de manera eficiente y económica. La presente tesis está orientada hacia la resolución de ciertos problemas importantes relacionados con este objetivo. La mencionada necesidad de reducir costes en la concentración de radiación solar directa, asegurando el objetivo termodinámico de calentar un fluido hasta una determinada temperatura, es de vital importancia. Los colectores lineales Fresnel han sido identificados en la literatura científica como una tecnología con gran potencial para alcanzar esta reducción de costes. Dicha tecnología ha sido seleccionada por numerosas razones, entre las que destacan su gran libertad de diseño y su actual estado inmaduro. Con el objetivo de responder a este desafío se desarrollado un detallado estudio de las propiedades ópticas de los colectores lineales Fresnel, para lo cual se han utilizado métodos analíticos y numéricos de manera combinada. En primer lugar, se han usado unos modelos para la predicción de la localización y la irradiación normal directa del sol junto a unas relaciones analíticas desarrolladas para estudiar el efecto de múltiples variables de diseño en la energía incidente sobre los espejos. Del mismo modo, se han obtenido analíticamente los errores debidos al llamado “off-axis aberration”, a la apertura de los rayos reflejados en los espejos y a las sombras y bloqueos entre espejos. Esto ha permitido la comparación de diferentes formas de espejo –planos, circulares o parabólicos–, así como el diseño preliminar de la localización y anchura de los espejos y receptor sin necesidad de costosos métodos numéricos. En segundo lugar, se ha desarrollado un modelo de trazado de rayos de Monte Carlo con el objetivo de comprobar la validez del estudio analítico, pero sobre todo porque este no es preciso en el estudio de la reflexión en espejos. El código desarrollado está específicamente ideado para colectores lineales Fresnel, lo que ha permitido la reducción del tiempo de cálculo en varios órdenes de magnitud en comparación con un programa comercial más general. Esto justifica el desarrollo de un nuevo código en lugar de la compra de una licencia de otro programa. El modelo ha sido usado primeramente para comparar la intensidad de flujo térmico y rendimiento de colectores Fresnel, con y sin reflector secundario, con los colectores cilíndrico parabólicos. Finalmente, la conjunción de los resultados obtenidos en el estudio analítico con el programa numérico ha sido usada para optimizar el campo solar para diferentes orientaciones –Norte-Sur y Este-Oeste–, diferentes localizaciones –Almería y Aswan–, diferentes inclinaciones hacia el Trópico –desde 0 deg hasta 32 deg– y diferentes mínimos de intensidad del flujo en el centro del receptor –10 kW/m2 y 25 kW/m2–. La presente tesis ha conducido a importantes descubrimientos que deben ser considerados a la hora de diseñar un campo solar Fresnel. En primer lugar, los espejos utilizados no deben ser plano, sino cilíndricos o parabólicos, ya que los espejos curvos implican mayores concentraciones y rendimiento. Por otro lado, se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la orientación Este-Oeste es más propicia para localizaciones con altas latitudes, como Almería, mientras que en zonas más cercanas a los trópicos como Aswan los campos Norte-Sur conducen a mayores rendimientos. Es de destacar que la orientación Este-Oeste requiere aproximadamente la mitad de espejos que los campos Norte-Sur, puediendo estar inclinados hacia los Trópicos para mejorar el rendimiento, y que alcanzan parecidos valores de intensidad térmica en el receptor todos los días a mediodía. Sin embargo, los campos con orientación Norte-Sur permiten un flujo más constante a lo largo de un día. Por último, ha sido demostrado que el uso de diseños pre-optimizados analíticamente, con anchura de espejos y espaciado entre espejos variables a lo ancho del campo, pueden implicar aumentos de la energía generada por metro cuadrado de espejos de hasta el 6%. El rendimiento óptico anual de los colectores cilíndrico parabólicos es 23 % mayor que el rendimiento de los campos Fresnel en Almería, mientras que la diferencia es de solo 9 % en Aswan. Ello implica que, para alcanzar el mismo precio de electricidad que la tecnología de referencia, la reducción de costes de instalación por metro cuadrado de espejo debe estar entre el 10 % y el 25 %, y que los colectores lineales Fresnel tienen más posibilidades de ser desarrollados en zonas de bajas latitudes. Como consecuencia de los estudios desarrollados en esta tesis se ha patentado un sistema de almacenamiento que tiene en cuenta la variación del flujo térmico en el receptor a lo largo del día, especialmente para campos con orientación Este-Oeste. Este invento permitiría el aprovechamiento de la energía incidente durante más parte del año, aumentando de manera apreciable los rendimientos óptico y térmico. Abstract Concentrating solar power is the common name of a technology based on capturing the thermal power of solar radiation, in a suitable way to reach temperatures able to activate a conventional (or advanced) thermodynamic cycle to generate electricity; this quest mainly depends on our ability to concentrate solar radiation in a cheap and efficient way. The present thesis is focused to highlight and help solving some of the important issues related to this problem. The need of reducing costs in concentrating the direct solar radiation, but without jeopardizing the thermodynamic objective of heating a fluid up to the required temperature, is of prime importance. Linear Fresnel collectors have been identified in the scientific literature as a technology with high potential to reach this cost reduction. This technology has been selected because of a number of reasons, particularly the degrees of freedom of this type of concentrating configuration and its current immature state. In order to respond to this challenge, a very detailed exercise has been carried out on the optical properties of linear Fresnel collectors. This has been done combining analytic and numerical methods. First, the effect of the design variables on the ratio of energy impinging onto the reflecting surface has been studied using analytically developed equations, together with models that predict the location and direct normal irradiance of the sun at any moment. Similarly, errors due to off-axis aberration, to the aperture of the reflected energy beam and to shading and blocking effects have been obtained analytically. This has allowed the comparison of different shapes of mirrors –flat, cylindrical or parabolic–, as well as a preliminary optimization of the location and width of mirrors and receiver with no need of time-consuming numerical models. Second, in order to prove the validity of the analytic results, but also due to the fact that the study of the reflection process is not precise enough when using analytic equations, a Monte Carlo Ray Trace model has been developed. The developed code is designed specifically for linear Fresnel collectors, which has reduced the computing time by several orders of magnitude compared to a wider commercial software. This justifies the development of the new code. The model has been first used to compare radiation flux intensities and efficiencies of linear Fresnel collectors, both multitube receiver and secondary reflector receiver technologies, with parabolic trough collectors. Finally, the results obtained in the analytic study together with the numeric model have used in order to optimize the solar field for different orientations –North-South and East-West–, different locations –Almería and Aswan–, different tilts of the field towards the Tropic –from 0 deg to 32 deg– and different flux intensity minimum requirements –10 kW/m2 and 25 kW/m2. This thesis work has led to several important findings that should be considered in the design of Fresnel solar fields. First, flat mirrors should not be used in any case, as cylindrical and parabolic mirrors lead to higher flux intensities and efficiencies. Second, it has been concluded that, in locations relatively far from the Tropics such as Almería, East-West embodiments are more efficient, while in Aswan North- South orientation leads to a higher annual efficiency. It must be noted that East-West oriented solar fields require approximately half the number of mirrors than NS oriented fields, can be tilted towards the Equator in order to increase the efficiency and attain similar values of flux intensity at the receiver every day at midday. On the other hand, in NS embodiments the flux intensity is more even during each single day. Finally, it has been proved that the use of analytic designs with variable shift between mirrors and variable width of mirrors across the field can lead to improvements in the electricity generated per reflecting surface square meter up to 6%. The annual optical efficiency of parabolic troughs has been found to be 23% higher than the efficiency of Fresnel fields in Almería, but it is only around 9% higher in Aswan. This implies that, in order to attain the same levelized cost of electricity than parabolic troughs, the required reduction of installation costs per mirror square meter is in the range of 10-25%. Also, it is concluded that linear Fresnel collectors are more suitable for low latitude areas. As a consequence of the studies carried out in this thesis, an innovative storage system has been patented. This system takes into account the variation of the flux intensity along the day, especially for East-West oriented solar fields. As a result, the invention would allow to exploit the impinging radiation along longer time every day, increasing appreciably the optical and thermal efficiencies.

Determinación y caracterización de los indicadores que intervienen en un sistema integral de iluminación natural y protección solar : aplicado a la incorporación de bandejas en los huecos de fachadas existentes

En esta tesis se estudia cómo lograr el equilibrio entre dos fenómenos naturales que afectan a los huecos de fachadas: la iluminación natural y la ganancia solar. Es decir, el cómo, conseguir la optimización de la iluminación natural que se introduce a través de las ventanas existentes, sin realizar una laboriosa intervención de sustitución de las mismas y el cómo, conseguir la protección de la radiación solar directa de la zona acristalada, para evitar tanto las ganancias térmicas innecesarias como el deslumbramiento que afecta a la calidad lumínica de los recintos. Para el desarrollo esta investigación se ha propuesto una metodología de estudio dividida en dos fases: La primera, de Análisis y Diagnóstico, en la que se han de definir los estándares a cumplir y las variables con las que se evaluarán las bandejas. Y, la segunda, de Evaluación y Comprobación en la que se han de establecer los criterios de valoración y ponderación de cada variable. En la primera fase, se definirán las variables físico-ambientales, para lo que se seleccionarán algunas ciudades a estudiar, a las cuales se les estudiará las necesidades de confort térmico, se determinarán las dimensiones que deben tener las protecciones solares en esas ciudades, además se determinarán las actuaciones a realizar en los huecos de fachada según sea su posición en el plano vertical de la misma. Así mismo, se plantea hacer un análisis de casos reales, para lo que se caracterizarán desde el punto de vista lumínico algunas viviendas, realizando medidas “in situ” y comparando resultados con los que se obtienen de los programas de simulación, para seleccionar las viviendas en las que la realidad y la simulación se aproximen más, una de estas viviendas servirá de modelo en las simulaciones que se realizará en la segunda fase. También, en esta primera fase, mediante un modelo neutro, se estudiará el comportamiento térmico y lumínico del tamaño del hueco en el que se insertará la bandeja posteriormente, para luego estudiar la posición de la bandeja en el plano vertical de la ventana, desde el punto de vista ergonómico. Y finalmente se estudiará, el comportamiento térmico y lumínico del modelo con la bandeja ubicada a 40, 50 y 60cm del techo. En la segunda fase, se establecerá la valoración y ponderación de las variables con las que seleccionar la bandeja que mejor equilibre los aspectos térmicos y lumínicos, teniendo en cuenta estrategias pasivas de acondicionamiento ambiental, como favorecer las ganancias solares en invierno en horas diurnas y evitar las pérdidas de calor en horas nocturnas; y en verano implementar sistemas de sombreamiento en la zona acristalada para evitar las ganancias de calor; y, tanto en verano como en invierno, aprovechar la iluminación natural, para favorecer la iluminancia útil y evitar el deslumbramiento. Una vez definidos los criterios de valoración y ponderación se aplicará a la evaluación térmica y lumínica del modelo neutro con la bandeja, consiguiendo seleccionar la bandeja con mejor comportamiento. Posteriormente se comprobará la metodología de estudio desarrollada en el modelo seleccionado, se evaluará el comportamiento térmico y lumínico, con la incorporación de algunas alternativas de bandeja. Con esta investigación se quiere demostrar que mediante la aplicación de esta metodología de estudio, es posible evaluar y seleccionar bandejas que respondan a las necesidades requeridas en distintos casos de estudio, por lo que se considera que, la bandeja puede ser un elemento arquitectónico aplicable tanto en rehabilitación como en nueva construcción, de espacios en los que sea necesario mejorar sus condiciones lumínicas y térmicas simultáneamente. ABSTRACT This thesis studies how to balance two natural events that affect the window opening of facades: daylighting and solar gain. That is to say, how to achieve optimization of natural light that gets in through the existing windows, without making a laborious intervention of replacing them and how to get protection from direct solar radiation from the glass area, to avoid unnecessary heat gain and glare affecting the light quality of the enclosures. To develop this research, it has been proposed a methodology of study divided into two phases: First phase, Analysis and Diagnostics, in which the variables with which the light shelf are evaluated will be defined along with the standards the light shelves will meet. The second phase, Assessment and Verification, in which the assessment criteria and weighting of each variable will be established. In the first phase, the physical and environmental variables shall be defined, various cities will be selected to be studied, and in each the needs of thermal comfort will be determined along with the dimensions of shading devices in the cities. In addition the actions to be taken in the window opening of the façade will be determined, depending on their position in the vertical plane. An analysis of real cases will be undertaken, which will be characterized from the luminous point of view, performing "in situ" measurements and comparing results with those obtained from simulation programs, to select places/dwellings where reality and simulation are closer, one of these places/dwellings will be a model, in the simulations to perform at the second phase. Also, in this first phase, by a neutral model, the thermal and light behavior of the size of the window opening will be studied, in which the light shelf is inserted later, the position of the light shelf in the vertical plane of the window is studied, from an ergonomic point of view. And finally to study the thermal and light behavior of the model with the light shelf located at 40, 50 and 60cm from the ceiling. In the second phase, the evaluation and weighting of the variables will be established selecting the light shelf that best balances the thermal and daylighting aspects, taking into account passive environmental conditioning strategies; such as getting solar gains in winter during daylight hours, and preventing heat loss during the night hours; and in summer implementing shading systems in the glazing area to avoid heat gains. And in both summer and winter, taking advantage of natural lighting, to improve useful illuminance and avoid glare. Once defined, the evaluation criteria and weighting will be applied to thermal and daylighting evaluation to the neutral model with the light shelf, the best performing light shelf will be selected. The study methodology developed in the selected model will be verified the thermal and daylighting performance with the addition of some light shelf alternative will also be studied. With this research, we want to show that by applying this study methodology it is possible to evaluate and select the light shelf that meets the needs required in different case studies, so it is considered that the light shelf may be an applicable architectural element in both refurbishment and new construction of spaces where necessary to improve their daylighting and thermal conditions simultaneously.

Solar radiation over and under sea ice during the POLARSTERN cruise ARK-XXVI/3 (TransArc) in summer 2011

Arctic sea ice has declined and become thinner and younger (more seasonal) during the last decade. One consequence of this is that the surface energy budget of the Arctic Ocean is changing. While the role of surface albedo has been studied intensively, it is still widely unknown how much light penetrates through sea ice into the upper ocean, affecting sea-ice mass balance, ecosystems, and geochemical processes. Here we present the first large-scale under-ice light measurements, operating spectral radiometers on a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) under Arctic sea ice in summer. This data set is used to produce an Arctic-wide map of light distribution under summer sea ice. Our results show that transmittance through first-year ice (FYI, 0.11) was almost three times larger than through multi-year ice (MYI, 0.04), and that this is mostly caused by the larger melt-pond coverage of FYI (42 vs. 23%). Also energy absorption was 50% larger in FYI than in MYI. Thus, a continuation of the observed sea-ice changes will increase the amount of light penetrating into the Arctic Ocean, enhancing sea-ice melt and affecting sea-ice and upper-ocean ecosystems.

Investigation of silicon photocells as converters of solar radiation (Issledovaniye kremniyevykh fotoelementov kak preobrazovately solnechnogo izlucheniya)

"This translation was prepared under the auspices of the Liaison Office, Technical Information Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio."

Atlas (1900-1959) of planetary solar climate, with sun-tide indices of solar radiation and global insolation.

Mode of access: Internet.

Radiation pressure confinement, the shock pinch and feasibility of fusion propulsion,

Caption title.

Hourly solar radiation data for vertical and horizontal surfaces on average days in the United States and Canada /

Mode of access: Internet.

Photo degradation of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) under simulated solar radiation: Implications for their environmental fate

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are continuously being released into the environment mainly because of their incomplete removal in the sewage treatment plants (STPs). The CECs selected for the study include antibiotics (macrolides, sulfonamides and ciprofloxacin), sucralose (an artificial sweetener) and dioctyl sulfosuccinate (DOSS, chemical dispersant used in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill). After being discharged into waterways from STPs, photo degradation is a key factor in dictating the environmental fate of antibiotics and sucralose. Photodegradation efficiency depends on many factors such as pH of the matrix, matrix composition, light source and structure of the molecule. These factors exert either synergistic or antagonistic effects in the environment and thus experiments with isolated factors may not yield the same results as the natural environmental processes. Hence in the current study photodegradation of 13 CECs (antibiotics, sucralose and dicotyl sulfosuccinate) were evaluated using natural water matrices with varying composition (deionized water, fresh water and salt water) as well as radiation of different wavelengths (254 nm, 350 nm and simulated solar radiation) in order to mimic natural processes. As expected the contribution of each factor on the overall rate of photodegradation is contaminant specific, for example under similar conditions, the rate in natural waters compared to pure water was enhanced for antibiotics (2-11 fold), significantly reduced for sucralose (no degradation seen in natural waters) and similar in both media for DOSS. In general, it was observed that the studied compounds degraded faster at 254 nm, while when using a simulated sunlight radiation the rate of photolysis of DOSS increased and the rates for antibiotics decreased in comparison to the 350 nm radiation. The photo stability of the studied CECs followed the order sucralose > DOSS > macrolides > sulfonamides > ciprofloxacin and a positive relationship was observed between photo stability and their ubiquitous presence in natural aquatic matrices. An online LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for sucralose and further applied to reclaimed waters (n =56) and drinking waters (n = 43) from South Florida. Sucralose was detected in reclaimed waters with concentrations reaching up to 18 μg/L. High frequency of detection (> 80%) in drinking waters indicate contamination of ground waters in South Florida by anthropogenic activity.^

Estudio del Secado de Anacardo (Anacardium occidentale L.) mediante Secador Solar de Radiación Directa

MACHADO, Antônio V. et al. Estudio del Secado de Anacardo (Anacardium occidentale L.) mediante Secador Solar de Radiación Directa. Información Tecnológica, v. 21, n. 1, p. 31-37, 2010.

Estudio del Secado de Anacardo (Anacardium occidentale L.) mediante Secador Solar de Radiación Directa

MACHADO, Antônio V. et al. Estudio del Secado de Anacardo (Anacardium occidentale L.) mediante Secador Solar de Radiación Directa. Información Tecnológica, v. 21, n. 1, p. 31-37, 2010.

Determination of a Mean Solar Radiation Year and of a Typical Meteorological Year for the region of Funchal in the Madeira Island

This paper presents the determination of a mean solar radiation year and of a typical meteorological year for the region of Funchal in the Madeira Island, Portugal. The data set includes hourly mean and extreme values for air temperature, relative humidity and wind speed and hourly mean values for solar global and diffuse radiation for the period 2004-2014, with maximum data coverage of 99.7%. The determination of the mean solar radiation year consisted, in a first step, in the average of all values for each pair hour/day and, in a second step, in the application of a five days centred moving average of hourly values. The determination of the typical meteorological year was based on Finkelstein-Schafer statistics, which allows to obtain a complete year of real measurements through the selection and combination of typical months, preserving the long term averages while still allowing the analysis of short term events. The typical meteorological year validation was carried out through the comparison of the monthly averages for the typical year with the long term monthly averages. The values obtained were very close, so that the typical meteorological year can accurately represent the long term data series. The typical meteorological year can be used in the simulation of renewable energy systems, namely solar energy systems, and for predicting the energy performance of buildings.

Implementation of an intelligent sensor for measurement and prediction of solar radiation and atmospheric temperature

Dissertação de mestrado, Engenharia Electrónica e Telecomunicações, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, 2011