Controlador com FPGA para um motor-in-wheel CA de fluxo axial

Dissertação de mestrado integrado em Engenharia Eletrónica Industrial e de Computadores

Terapéutica racional, mediante indicadores de eficacia antimicrobiana, de la mastitis caprina utilizando marbofloxacina y cefquinoma. Rational therapeutics, indicators of antimicrobial efficiency in the mastitis goats using marbofloxacine and cefquinome

La producción de leche de cabra es considerada en nuestro país, y en la provincia de Córdoba, una alternativa productiva para el desarrollo sustentable y socio – económico de la población. Por otra parte, existe una mayor demanda del mercado nacional e internacional de esta leche, por lo que los productores deben garantizar la seguridad y calidad de la misma de acuerdo a las normas vigentes. Es por ello que el control y tratamiento de las diferentes enfermedades es de vital importancia tanto para maximizar la producción del hato como para cumplir con los cánones de seguridad exigidos. En este contexto la mastitis caprina es una de las enfermedades que afecta la productividad del sector, y para controlarla una de las medidas a emplear es la terapéutica con antimicrobianos. Se trabajará en este proyecto con marbofloxacina y cefquinoma, estableciendo pautas racionales (eficaces y seguras) para su empleo en la afección a nivel regional. Los indicadores de eficacia estarán fijados de acuerdo a los parámetros integrados de farmacocinética (FC) y farmacodinamia (FD). Estos últimos (FD) serán calculados a través de la determinación concentraciones inhibitorias mínimas de cepas bacterianas aisladas de mastitis caprinas en Córdoba. Se establecerán los parámetros farmacocinéticos a dosis únicas y múltiples para la marbofloxacina (5 mg/kg IV, IM) y cefquinoma (2 mg/kg IV, IM e IMM) a partir de muestras de suero y leche de cabras Anglo Nubian (n = 6 por antimicrobiano; diseño cruzado en función de la ruta de administración). Se determinarán sus concentraciones en dichos fluidos, por cromatografía líquida de alta precisión. Los resultados FC/FD para ambos medicamentos se compararán con parámetros recomendados por expertos para cada tipo de antimicrobiano y se utilizarán como medida para recomendar una terapéutica racional, fundamental para optimizar la posología, garantizar la eficacia clínica, y reducir al mínimo la selección y propagación de cepas resistentes de agentes patógenos. The production of milk of goat is considered the province of Cordoba, a productive alternative for the sustainable development and partner - economically of the population. There is a major demand of the domestic and international market of this milk, for what the producers must guarantee the safety and quality of the same one of agreement to the in force procedure. It is for it that the control and treatment of the different diseases performs vital importance so much to maximize the production of the herd as to expire with the safety demanded. In this context the mastitis goat is one of the diseases that affect the productivity of the sector, and to control her one of the measures to using is the therapeutics with antimicrobial. One will be employed at this project with marbofloxacine and cefquinome, establishing rational guidelines (effective and sure) for his employment in the affection to regional level. The indicators of efficiency will be fixed in agreement to the integrated parameters of pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodinamics (PD). The latter (PK) will be calculated across the determination inhibitory minimal concentrations of bacterial strains isolated of mastitis goat in Córdoba. The parameters will be established pharmacokinetics to the only and multiple doses for the marbofloxacine (5 mg/kg the IV, IM) and cefquinome (2 mg/kg the IVth, IM and IMM), From samples of whey and milk of goats Anglo Nubian (n = 6 for antimicrobial; design crossed depending on the route of administration). Its concentrations will decide in the above mentioned fluids, for liquid chromatography of high precision. The results PK/PD for both antimicrobial will be compared with parameters recommended by experts for every type of antimicrobial and will be in use as measure for recommending a rational, fundamental therapeutics for optimizing the dosage, for guaranteeing the clinical efficiency, and to reduce to the minimum the selection and spread of resistant of pathogenic agents.

Design of a bifurcated stent graft, with its accompanying delivery system.

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA) haemorhaging is a life-threatening disease. An aneurysm is a permanent swelling of an artery due to a weakness in its wall. Current surgical repair involves opening the chest or abdomen, gaining temporary vascular control of the aorta and suturing a prosthetic graft to the healthy aorta within the aneurysm itself The outcome of this surgical approach is not perfect, and the quality of life after this repair is impaired by postoperative pain, sexual dysfunction, and a lengthy hospital stay resulting in high health costs. All these negative effects are related to the large incision and extensive tissue dissection. Endovascular grafting is an alternative to the standard surgical method. This treatment is a less invasive method of treating aortic aneurysms. It involves a surgical exposure of the common femoral arteries where the stent graft can be inserted through by an over-the-wire technique. All manipulations are controlled from a remote place by the use of a catheter and this technique avoids the need to directly expose the diseased artery through a large incision or an extensive dissection. The proposed design method outlined in this project is to develop the endovascular approach. The main aim is to design an unitary bifurcated stent graft (1 e- bifurcated graft as a single component) to treat these Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms. This includes the delivery system and deployment mechanism necessary to first accurately position the stent graft across the aneurysm sac and also across the iliac bifurcation, and secondly fix the stent graft in position by using expandable metal stents. Thus, excluding the aneurysm from the circulation and therefore preventing rupture. Miniaturisation is a critical aspect of this design, as the smaller the crimped stent graft the easier to guide through the vascular system to the desired location. Biocompatibility is an important aspect. The preferred materials for this prosthesis are to use Shape Memory Alloys for the stent and a multifilament fabric for the graft. A taper design is applied for the geometry as this gives a favourable flow characteristic and reduced wave reflections. Adequate testing of the stent graft to prove its durability and the ease of the method of deployment is a prerequisite. A bench test facility has being designed and build to replicate the cardiovascular system and the disease in question aortic aneurysms at the iliac bifurcation. The testing here shows the feasibility of the proposed delivery system and the durability of the stent graft across the aneurysm sac. Finally, these endovascular treatments offer the economic advantage of short hospital stays or even treatment as an outpatient, as well as elimination of the need for postoperative intensive care The risk of developing an aneurysm increases with age, that is one of the mam reasons to look for less invasive ways of treating aneurysms. Consequently, there is enormous pressure to develop and use these devices rapidly.

Quality assurance in the 22991 EORTC ROG trial in localized prostate cancer: dummy run and individual case review.

INTRODUCTION: EORTC trial 22991 was designed to evaluate the addition of concomitant and adjuvant short-term hormonal treatments to curative radiotherapy in terms of disease-free survival for patients with intermediate risk localized prostate cancer. In order to assess the compliance to the 3D conformal radiotherapy protocol guidelines, all participating centres were requested to participate in a dummy run procedure. An individual case review was performed for the largest recruiting centres as well. MATERIALS AND METHODS: CT-data of an eligible prostate cancer patient were sent to 30 centres including a description of the clinical case. The investigator was requested to delineate the volumes of interest and to perform treatment planning according to the protocol. Thereafter, the investigators of the 12 most actively recruiting centres were requested to provide data on five randomly selected patients for an individual case review. RESULTS: Volume delineation varied significantly between investigators. Dose constraints for organs at risk (rectum, bladder, hips) were difficult to meet. In the individual case review, no major protocol deviations were observed, but a number of dose reporting problems were documented for centres using IMRT. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, results of this quality assurance program were satisfactory. The efficacy of the combination of a dummy run procedure with an individual case review is confirmed in this study, as none of the evaluated patient files harboured a major protocol deviation. Quality assurance remains a very important tool in radiotherapy to increase the reliability of the trial results. Special attention should be given when designing quality assurance programs for more complex irradiation techniques.

The value of 'positive' clinical signs for weakness, sensory and gait disorders in conversion disorder: a systematic and narrative review.

Experts in the field of conversion disorder have suggested for the upcoming DSM-V edition to put less weight on the associated psychological factors and to emphasise the role of clinical findings. Indeed, a critical step in reaching a diagnosis of conversion disorder is careful bedside neurological examination, aimed at excluding organic signs and identifying 'positive' signs suggestive of a functional disorder. These positive signs are well known to all trained neurologists but their validity is still not established. The aim of this study is to provide current evidence regarding their sensitivity and specificity. We conducted a systematic search on motor, sensory and gait functional signs in Embase, Medline, PsycINfo from 1965 to June 2012. Studies in English, German or French reporting objective data on more than 10 participants in a controlled design were included in a systematic review. Other relevant signs are discussed in a narrative review. Eleven controlled studies (out of 147 eligible articles) describing 14 signs (7 motor, 5 sensory, 2 gait) reported low sensitivity of 8-100% but high specificity of 92-100%. Studies were evidence class III, only two had a blinded design and none reported on inter-rater reliability of the signs. Clinical signs for functional neurological symptoms are numerous but only 14 have been validated; overall they have low sensitivity but high specificity and their use should thus be recommended, especially with the introduction of the new DSM-V criteria.

Rapid detection of enterovirus in cerebrospinal fluid by a fully-automated PCR assay is associated with improved management of aseptic meningitis in adult patients.

BACKGROUND: Enterovirus (EV) is the most frequent cause of aseptic meningitis (AM). Lack of microbiological documentation results in unnecessary antimicrobial therapy and hospitalization. OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of rapid EV detection in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) by a fully-automated PCR (GeneXpert EV assay, GXEA) on the management of AM. STUDY DESIGN: Observational study in adult patients with AM. Three groups were analyzed according to EV documentation in CSF: group A=no PCR or negative PCR (n=17), group B=positive real-time PCR (n=20), and group C=positive GXEA (n=22). Clinical, laboratory and health-care costs data were compared. RESULTS: Clinical characteristics were similar in the 3 groups. Median turn-around time of EV PCR decreased from 60h (IQR (interquartile range) 44-87) in group B to 5h (IQR 4-11) in group C (p<0.0001). Median duration of antibiotics was 1 (IQR 0-6), 1 (0-1.9), and 0.5 days (single dose) in groups A, B, and C, respectively (p<0.001). Median length of hospitalization was 4 days (2.5-7.5), 2 (1-3.7), and 0.5 (0.3-0.7), respectively (p<0.001). Median hospitalization costs were $5458 (2676-6274) in group A, $2796 (2062-5726) in group B, and $921 (765-1230) in group C (p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Rapid EV detection in CSF by a fully-automated PCR improves management of AM by significantly reducing antibiotic use, hospitalization length and costs.

The v-y latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap in the reconstruction of large posterior chest wall defects.

Posterior chest wall defects are frequently encountered after excision of tumors as a result of trauma or in the setting of wound dehiscence after spine surgery. Various pedicled fasciocutaneous and musculocutaneous flaps have been described for the coverage of these wounds. The advent of perforator flaps has allowed the preservation of muscle function but their bulk is limited. Musculocutaneous flaps remain widely employed. The trapezius and the latissimus dorsi (LD) flaps have been used extensively for upper and middle posterior chest wounds, respectively. Their bulk allows for obliteration of the dead space in deep wounds. The average width of the LD skin paddle is limited to 10-12 cm if closure of the donor site is expected without skin grafting. In 2001 a modification of the skin paddle design was introduced in order to allow large flaps to be raised without requiring grafts or flaps for donor site closure. This V-Y pattern allows coverage of large anterior chest defects after mastectomy. We have modified this flap to allow its use for posterior chest wall defects. We describe the flap design, its indications, and its limitations with three clinical cases. Level of Evidence V This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors at www.springer.com/00266 .

Augmented epithelial multidrug resistance-associated protein 4 expression in peritoneal endometriosis: regulation by lipoxin A(4).

OBJECTIVE: To compare the expression of the prostaglandin (PG) E(2) transporter multidrug resistance-associated protein 4 (MRP4) in eutopic and ectopic endometrial tissue from endometriosis patients with that of control subjects and to examine whether MRP4 is regulated by the antiinflammatory lipid lipoxin A(4) (LXA(4)) in endometriotic epithelial cells. DESIGN: Molecular analysis in human samples and a cell line. SETTING: Two university hospitals and a private clinic. PATIENT(S): A total of 59 endometriosis patients and 32 age- and body mass index-matched control subjects undergoing laparoscopy or hysterectomy. INTERVENTION(S): Normal, eutopic, and ectopic endometrial biopsies as well as peritoneal fluid were obtained during surgery performed during the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle. 12Z endometriotic epithelial cells were used for in vitro mechanistic studies. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Tissue MRP4 mRNA levels were quantified by quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and localization was analyzed with the use of immunohistochemistry. Cellular MRP4 mRNA and protein were quantified by qRT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. PGE(2) was measured in peritoneal fluid and cell supernatants using an enzyme immunoassay (EIA). RESULT(S): MRP4 was expressed in eutopic and ectopic endometrium, where it was overexpressed in peritoneal lesions and localized in the cytoplasm of glandular epithelial cells. LXA(4) attenuated MRP4 mRNA and protein levels in endometriotic epithelial cells in a dose-dependent manner, while not affecting the expression of enzymes involved in PGE(2) metabolism. Investigations employing receptor antagonists and small interfering RNA revealed that this occurred through estrogen receptor α. Accordingly, LXA(4) treatment inhibited extracellular PGE(2) release. CONCLUSION(S): We report for the first time that MRP4 is expressed in human endometrium, elevated in peritoneal endometriosis, and modulated by LXA(4) in endometriotic epithelial cells.

Immune monitoring design within the developmental pipeline for an immunotherapeutic or preventive vaccine

Immunotherapy is defined as the treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response, whereas preventive vaccination is intended to prevent the development of diseases in healthy subjects. Most successful prophylactic vaccines rely on the induction of high titers of neutralizing antibodies. It is generally thought that therapeutic vaccination requires induction of robust T-cell mediated immunity. The diverse array of potential or already in use immunotherapeutic and preventive agents all share the commonality of stimulating the immune system. Hence, measuring those vaccination-induced immune responses gives the earliest indication of vaccine take and its immune modulating effects.

Modulation of the Endocannabinoids N-Arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) on Executive Functions in Humans.

Animal studies point to an implication of the endocannabinoid system on executive functions. In humans, several studies have suggested an association between acute or chronic use of exogenous cannabinoids (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) and executive impairments. However, to date, no published reports establish the relationship between endocannabinoids, as biomarkers of the cannabinoid neurotransmission system, and executive functioning in humans. The aim of the present study was to explore the association between circulating levels of plasma endocannabinoids N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and executive functions (decision making, response inhibition and cognitive flexibility) in healthy subjects. One hundred and fifty seven subjects were included and assessed with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; Stroop Color and Word Test; and Iowa Gambling Task. All participants were female, aged between 18 and 60 years and spoke Spanish as their first language. Results showed a negative correlation between 2-AG and cognitive flexibility performance (r = -.37; p<.05). A positive correlation was found between AEA concentrations and both cognitive flexibility (r = .59; p<.05) and decision making performance (r = .23; P<.05). There was no significant correlation between either 2-AG (r = -.17) or AEA (r = -.08) concentrations and inhibition response. These results show, in humans, a relevant modulation of the endocannabinoid system on prefrontal-dependent cognitive functioning. The present study might have significant implications for the underlying executive alterations described in some psychiatric disorders currently associated with endocannabinoids deregulation (namely drug abuse/dependence, depression, obesity and eating disorders). Understanding the neurobiology of their dysexecutive profile might certainly contribute to the development of new treatments and pharmacological approaches.

Trends in yearly prevalence of third-generation cephalosporin and fluoroquinolone resistant Enterobacteriaceae infections and antimicrobial use in Spanish hospitals, Spain, 1999 to 2010.

Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Enterobacter spp. are a major cause of infections in hospitalised patients. The aim of our study was to evaluate rates and trends of resistance to third-generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones in infected patients, the trends in use for these antimicrobials, and to assess the potential correlation between both trends. The database of national point prevalence study series of infections and antimicrobial use among patients hospitalised in Spain over the period from 1999 to 2010 was analysed. On average 265 hospitals and 60,000 patients were surveyed per year yielding a total of 19,801 E. coli, 3,004 K. pneumoniae and 3,205 Enterobacter isolates. During the twelve years period, we observed significant increases for the use of fluoroquinolones (5.8%-10.2%, p<0.001), but not for third-generation cephalosporins (6.4%-5.9%, p=NS). Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins increased significantly for E. coli (5%-15%, p<0.01) and for K. pneumoniae infections (4%-21%, p<0.01) but not for Enterobacter spp. (24%). Resistance to fluoroquinolones increased significantly for E. coli (16%30%, p<0.01), for K. pneumoniae (5%-22%, p<0.01), and for Enterobacter spp. (6%-15%, p<0.01). We found strong correlations between the rate of fluoroquinolone use and the resistance to fluoroquinolones, third-generation cephalosporins, or co-resistance to both, for E. coli (R=0.97, p<0.01, R=0.94, p<0.01, and R=0.96, p<0.01, respectively), and for K. pneumoniae (R=0.92, p<0.01, R=0.91, p<0.01, and R=0.92, p<0.01, respectively). No correlation could be found between the use of third-generation cephalosporins and resistance to any of the latter antimicrobials. No significant correlations could be found for Enterobacter spp.. Knowledge of the trends in antimicrobial resistance and use of antimicrobials in the hospitalised population at the national level can help to develop prevention strategies.

Behavioural Flexibility: evolutionary past and its role in a changing world

A través de la historia de la vida, gran parte de los organismos han desarrollado estrategias para responder a un mundo en constante cambio. Hoy en día, las actividades humanas producen cambios ambientales a una velocidad sin precedentes, lo cual se traduce en grandes desafíos para la persistencia de biodiversidad. Esta investigación evalúa las respuesta de los animales a los cambios ambientales enfocándose en la flexibilidad del comportamiento como estrategia adaptativa. En una primera aproximación a una escala evolutiva, se otorgan evidencias del vínculo hasta ahora tenue entre la cognición e historias de vida, entregando un claro apoyo a la relación entre longevidad, vida reproductiva y el tamaño del cerebro en mamíferos. La longevidad es el centro de muchas hipótesis respecto a las ventajas de desarrollar un cerebro grande, como por ejemplo en la hipótesis del buffer cognitivo y las respuestas flexibles frente a nuevos ambientes. En un segundo nivel, se abordan factores extrínsecos e intrínsecos que podrían explicar las diferencias individuales en innovación, un componente clave en la flexibilidad del comportamiento. Por medio de una aproximación experimental, se evalúan potenciales escenarios que podrían conducir a consistentes diferencias individuales en uno de los principales factores subyacentes a la innovación (i.e. la motivación), y el potencial control endocrino sobre estos escenarios. Posteriormente, con el objetivo de evaluar la respuesta de los animales frente a los cambios ambientales actuales, se explora la respuesta de los animales frente a una de las actividades humanas mas disruptivas sobre los ecosistemas, la urbanización. Por medio de un analisis filogenetico comparativo a nivel global en aves se abordan los mecanismos implicados en la perdida de biodiversidad observada en ambientes urbanos. Los resultados entregan evidencias sobre la importancia de procesos de dispersión local junto con el papel clave de los rasgos de historia de vida, pero en un sentido diferente al clasicamente pensado. Finalmente por medio de una revisión bibliográfica se entregan evidencias teóricas y empíricas que respaldan el rol clave de la flexibilidad del comportamiento en confrontar los desafíos de una vida urbana. La integración de estos resultados muestra cómo el pasado evolutivo contribuye a hacer frente a los retos ambientales actuales, y pone de relieve posibles consecuencias ante un planeta más cambiante que nunca.

Telehealth system (e-CUIDATE) to improve quality of life in breast cancer survivors: rationale and study protocol for a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND Breast cancer survivors suffer physical impairment after oncology treatment. This impairment reduces quality of life (QoL) and increase the prevalence of handicaps associated to unhealthy lifestyle (for example, decreased aerobic capacity and strength, weight gain, and fatigue). Recent work has shown that exercise adapted to individual characteristics of patients is related to improved overall and disease-free survival. Nowadays, technological support using telerehabilitation systems is a promising strategy with great advantage of a quick and efficient contact with the health professional. It is not known the role of telerehabilitation through therapeutic exercise as a support tool to implement an active lifestyle which has been shown as an effective resource to improve fitness and reduce musculoskeletal disorders of these women. METHODS / DESIGN This study will use a two-arm, assessor blinded, parallel randomized controlled trial design. People will be eligible if: their diagnosis is of stages I, II, or IIIA breast cancer; they are without chronic disease or orthopedic issues that would interfere with ability to participate in a physical activity program; they had access to the Internet and basic knowledge of computer use or living with a relative who has this knowledge; they had completed adjuvant therapy except for hormone therapy and not have a history of cancer recurrence; and they have an interest in improving lifestyle. Participants will be randomized into e-CUIDATE or usual care groups. E-CUIDATE give participants access to a range of contents: planning exercise arranged in series with breathing exercises, mobility, strength, and stretching. All of these exercises will be assigned to women in the telerehabilitation group according to perceived needs. The control group will be asked to maintain their usual routine. Study endpoints will be assessed after 8 weeks (immediate effects) and after 6 months. The primary outcome will be QoL measured by The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire Core 30 version 3.0 and breast module called The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Breast Cancer-Specific Quality of Life questionnaire. The secondary outcomes: pain (algometry, Visual Analogue Scale, Brief Pain Inventory short form); body composition; physical measurement (abdominal test, handgrip strength, back muscle strength, and multiple sit-to-stand test); cardiorespiratory fitness (International Fitness Scale, 6-minute walk test, International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form); fatigue (Piper Fatigue Scale and Borg Fatigue Scale); anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale); cognitive function (Trail Making Test and Auditory Consonant Trigram); accelerometry; lymphedema; and anthropometric perimeters. DISCUSSION This study investigates the feasibility and effectiveness of a telerehabilitation system during adjuvant treatment of patients with breast cancer. If this treatment option is effective, telehealth systems could offer a choice of supportive care to cancer patients during the survivorship phase. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01801527.

Prognostic and predictive biomarkers in resected colon cancer: current status and future perspectives for integrating genomics into biomarker discovery.

The number of agents that are potentially effective in the adjuvant treatment of locally advanced resectable colon cancer is increasing. Consequently, it is important to ascertain which subgroups of patients will benefit from a specific treatment. Despite more than two decades of research into the molecular genetics of colon cancer, there is a lack of prognostic and predictive molecular biomarkers with proven utility in this setting. A secondary objective of the Pan European Trials in Adjuvant Colon Cancer-3 trial, which compared irinotecan in combination with 5-fluorouracil and leucovorin in the postoperative treatment of stage III and stage II colon cancer patients, was to undertake a translational research study to assess a panel of putative prognostic and predictive markers in a large colon cancer patient cohort. The Cancer and Leukemia Group B 89803 trial, in a similar design, also investigated the use of prognostic and predictive biomarkers in this setting. In this article, the authors, who are coinvestigators from these trials and performed similar investigations of biomarker discovery in the adjuvant treatment of colon cancer, review the current status of biomarker research in this field, drawing on their experiences and considering future strategies for biomarker discovery in the postgenomic era.

Behavioural Flexibility: evolutionary past and its role in a changing world

A través de la historia de la vida, gran parte de los organismos han desarrollado estrategias para responder a un mundo en constante cambio. Hoy en día, las actividades humanas producen cambios ambientales a una velocidad sin precedentes, lo cual se traduce en grandes desafíos para la persistencia de biodiversidad. Esta investigación evalúa las respuesta de los animales a los cambios ambientales enfocándose en la flexibilidad del comportamiento como estrategia adaptativa. En una primera aproximación a una escala evolutiva, se otorgan evidencias del vínculo hasta ahora tenue entre la cognición e historias de vida, entregando un claro apoyo a la relación entre longevidad, vida reproductiva y el tamaño del cerebro en mamíferos. La longevidad es el centro de muchas hipótesis respecto a las ventajas de desarrollar un cerebro grande, como por ejemplo en la hipótesis del buffer cognitivo y las respuestas flexibles frente a nuevos ambientes. En un segundo nivel, se abordan factores extrínsecos e intrínsecos que podrían explicar las diferencias individuales en innovación, un componente clave en la flexibilidad del comportamiento. Por medio de una aproximación experimental, se evalúan potenciales escenarios que podrían conducir a consistentes diferencias individuales en uno de los principales factores subyacentes a la innovación (i.e. la motivación), y el potencial control endocrino sobre estos escenarios. Posteriormente, con el objetivo de evaluar la respuesta de los animales frente a los cambios ambientales actuales, se explora la respuesta de los animales frente a una de las actividades humanas mas disruptivas sobre los ecosistemas, la urbanización. Por medio de un analisis filogenetico comparativo a nivel global en aves se abordan los mecanismos implicados en la perdida de biodiversidad observada en ambientes urbanos. Los resultados entregan evidencias sobre la importancia de procesos de dispersión local junto con el papel clave de los rasgos de historia de vida, pero en un sentido diferente al clasicamente pensado. Finalmente por medio de una revisión bibliográfica se entregan evidencias teóricas y empíricas que respaldan el rol clave de la flexibilidad del comportamiento en confrontar los desafíos de una vida urbana. La integración de estos resultados muestra cómo el pasado evolutivo contribuye a hacer frente a los retos ambientales actuales, y pone de relieve posibles consecuencias ante un planeta más cambiante que nunca.