746 resultados para Criminal law (Roman law)


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The increasing international political, public and scientific engagement in matters of environmental sustainability and development has produced a rapidly expanding body of environmental law and policy. The advent of international protocols, directives, and multilateral agreements has occurred concomitantly with the harmonisation of widespread environmental regimes of governance and enforcement within numerous domestic settings. This has created an unprecedented need for environmental legal apparatuses to manage, regulate and adjudicate legislation seeking to protect, sustain and develop global natural habitats. The evolving literature in green criminology continues to explore these developments within discourses of power, harm and justice. Such critiques have emphasised the role of dedicated environmental courts to address environmental crimes and injustices. In this article, we examine the important role of specialist courts in responding to environmental crime, with specific reference to the State of Queensland. We offer a critique of existing processes and practices for the adjudication of environmental crime and propose new jurisdictional and procedural approaches for enhancing justice. We conclude that specialist environmental courts endowed with broad civil and criminal jurisdiction are an integral part of an effective response to environmental crime.

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A central dimension of the State’s responsibility in a liberal democracy and any just society is the protection of individuals’ central rights and freedoms, and the creation of the minimum conditions under which each individual has an opportunity to lead a life of sufficient equality, dignity and value. A special subset of this responsibility is to protect those who are unable to protect themselves from genuine harm. Substantial numbers of children suffer serious physical, emotional and sexual abuse, and neglect at the hands of their parents and caregivers or by other known parties. Child abuse and neglect occurs in a situation of extreme power asymmetry. The physical, social, behavioural and economic costs to the individual, and the social and economic costs to communities, are vast. Children are not generally able to protect themselves from serious abuse and neglect. This enlivens both the State’s responsibility to protect the child, and the debate about how that responsibility can and should be discharged. A core question arises for all societies, given that most serious child maltreatment occurs in the family sphere, is unlikely to be disclosed, causes substantial harm to both individual and community, and infringes fundamental individual rights and freedoms. The question is: how can society identify these situations so that the maltreatment can be interrupted, the child’s needs for security and safety, and health and other rehabilitation can be met, and the family’s needs can be addressed to reduce the likelihood of recurrence? This chapter proposes a theoretical framework applicable for any society that is considering justifiable and effective policy approaches to identify and respond to cases of serious child abuse and neglect. The core of the theoretical framework is based on major principles from both classical liberal political philosophy (Locke and Mill), and leading political philosophers from the twentieth century and the first part of the new millennium (Rawls, Rorty, Okin, Nussbaum), and is further situated within fundamental frameworks of civil and criminal law, and health and economics.

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Sexual harassment of women in medicine in the Australian medical profession is a serious problem which presents substantial legal, ethical and cultural questions for the medical profession. Women have enforceable legal rights to gender equality and freedom from sexual harassment in the workplace. Both individual offenders and their employers face significant legal consequences for sexual harassment. Individual medical practitioners and employers need to understand their legal and ethical responsibilities in this context. This article analyses four areas of legal liability in every State and Territory which apply to individual offenders and employers: criminal law, discrimination law, civil law, and contract law. It also analyses ethical duties owed by doctors towards their colleagues under professional regulatory schemes. The analysis shows that individual doctors and their employers have clear legal and ethical obligations to prevent sexual harassment. On legal and ethical grounds, medical employers, professional colleges and associations, and regulators need to improve gender equality and professional culture in medicine. A five-step model for cultural change is proposed.

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Stephen Gray is a writer and law lecturer who has been living in Darwin since 1989. He started out writing formal legal pieces about how copyright law had unsuccessfully sought to accommodate Aboriginal art. Such work led him to further investigate the philosophical questions underlying the legal issues affecting both traditional and urban Indigenous people. Gray has also explored matters of bioprospecting in relation to Indigenous biological resources. He has investigated the introduction of a label of authenticity into Australia. Gray has also published a number of articles about other legal issues affecting Indigenous people. He has explored such topics as native title, customary law, alternative dispute resolution, and criminal law. Gray has recently been awarded The Australian/ Vogel Literary Award for his novel The Artist is a Thief. He was inspired to write a book after being sent out to a community on a possible copyright claim as part of his job in the law faculty of Northern Territory University: "I wrote an academic article and then a more philosophical piece talking about the copyright act and the way it doesn't really protect traditional artists who have a very different view of the place of their art. The pieces were interesting, but I felt there was something more there that needed a fictional expression as well." It is ironic that such a self-conscious and sophisticated meditation upon appropriation and authenticity should win The Australian/ Vogel Literary Award. The inaugural award in 1980 was won by Paul Radley, who later revealed his books were mostly written by his uncle, and in 1993 it was won by Helen Demidenko, aka Darville, who had lied about her Ukrainian background and family history.

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In Australia, the legal basis for the detention and restraint of people with intellectual impairment is ad hoc and unclear. There is no comprehensive legal framework that authorises and regulates the detention of, for example, older people with dementia in locked wards or in residential aged care, people with disability in residential services or people with acquired brain injury in hospital and rehabilitation services. This paper focuses on whether the common law doctrine of necessity (or its statutory equivalents) should have a role in permitting the detention and restraint of people with disabilities. Traditionally, the defence of necessity has been recognised as an excuse, where the defendant, faced by a situation of imminent peril, is excused from the criminal or civil liability because of the extraordinary circumstances they find themselves in. In the United Kingdom, however, in In re F (Mental Patient: Sterilisation) and R v Bournewood Community and Mental Health NHS Trust, ex parte L, the House of Lords broadened the defence so that it operated as a justification for treatment, detention and restraint outside of the emergency context. This paper outlines the distinction between necessity as an excuse and as a defence, and identifies a number of concerns with the latter formulation: problems of democracy, integrity, obedience, objectivity and safeguards. Australian courts are urged to reject the United Kingdom approach and retain an excuse-based defence, as the risks of permitting the essentially utilitarian model of necessity as a justification are too great.

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The main focus of the research is on the genealogy of women's same-sex fornication in Finnish criminal law from 1889/1894 to 1971. Why were women included in the concept of same-sex fornication in Finland and why, where, and when was the law put into effect? Which women were tried, how did the trial proceedings evolve, and what kind of effects did the trials have afterwards? Which concepts were used? These questions have been approached through the analysis of the Finnish Penal Code, the criminal law science and four trial proceedings in Eastern Finland during the 1950s. The research draws on the epistemology of the closet and the concept of heteronormativity adapted from queer theories. It is method critical in utilising ethnography, micro history and feminist ethical self-reflection. The research consists of six scientific refereed articles (see appendix) and of a theoretical introduction. The main results of the research are: 1) The genealogy of Finnish decency [Sittlichkeit] can not be researched without oral histories, due to the late modernisation of Finnish society and the legal system, which does not follow the pattern of English, French and German societies. 2) The inclusion of women's same-sex fornication in the Finnish Penal Code is not incomprehensible when compared to the early modern European legislations and court practices. Women have been punished for the sins of Sodom, though not directly under the 1734 Swedish law. 3) Fornication and decency were ambivalent concepts in the 1889/1894 law, and juridical authorities offered controversial interpretations of them during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 4) A peak in women's convictions occurred in the 1950s, and most of the trial proceedings took place in rural Eastern Finland. Neither the state nor the police were active in prosecuting; instead, the trial proceedings began "by accident". 5) From 1940 to 1960 police training lacked instructions concerning the interrogation of women suspected of same-sex fornication. 6) The figure of the penitent woman was produced in the chiasmic encounter of confession and police interrogation which moulded and was moulded by the epistemological matrix of shame, honour, and decency. Women's speech acts were judicialised as confessions which enabled the disciplinary tampering with the women's bodies. 7) Gender and personality, more than sexuality, or "criminality" defined the status of the convicted women in their village communities after the trials. 8) Relations between police training, sexuality, and decency have not been well researched in Finland. 9) Decriminalisation in 1971 did not mark the end of homophobic legal discourse, even though the 1999 reform of sexual crimes took the form of gender neutral conceptualisation

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As part of the 2014 amendments to the Youth Justice Act 1992 (Qld) the previous Queensland government introduced a new breach of bail offence and a reverse onus provision in relation to the new offence. Also included in the raft of amendments was a provision removing the internationally accepted principle that, in relation to young offenders, detention should be used as ‘a last resort’. This article argues that these changes are likely to increase the entrenchment of young people within the criminal justice system.

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DNA evidence has made a significant contribution to criminal investigations in Australia and around the world since it was widely adopted in the 1990s (Gans & Urbas 2002). The direct matching of DNA profiles, such as comparing one obtained from a crime scene with one obtained from a suspect or database, remains a widely used technique in criminal investigations. A range of new DNA profiling techniques continues to be developed and applied in criminal investigations around the world (Smith & Urbas 2012). This paper is the third in a series by the Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) on DNA evidence. The first, published in 1990 when the technology was in its relative infancy, outlined the scientific background for DNA evidence, considered early issues such as scientific reliability and privacy and described its application in early criminal cases (Easteal & Easteal 1990). The second, published in 2002, expanded on the scientific background and discussed a significant number of Australian cases in a 12-year period, illustrating issues that had arisen in investigations, at trial and in the use of DNA in the review of convictions and acquittals (Gans & Urbas 2002). There have been some significant developments in the science and technology behind DNA evidence in the 13 years since 2002 that have important implications for law enforcement and the legal system. These are discussed through a review of relevant legal cases and the latest empirical evidence. This paper is structured in three sections. The first examines the scientific techniques and how they have been applied in police investigations, drawing on a number of recent cases to illustrate them. The second considers empirical research evaluating DNA evidence and databases and the impact DNA has on investigative and court outcomes. The final section discusses significant cases that establish legal precedent relating to DNA evidence in criminal trials where significant issues have arisen or new techniques have been applied that have not yet been widely discussed in the literature. The paper concludes by reflecting on implications for policy and practice.

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This is a narrative about the way in which a category of crime-to-be-combated is constructed through the discipline of criminology and the agents of discipline in criminal justice. The aim was to examine organized crime through the eyes of those whose job it is to fight it (and define it), and in doing so investigate the ways social problems surface as sites for state intervention. A genealogy of organized crime within criminological thought was completed, demonstrating that there are a range of different ways organized crime has been constructed within the social scientific discipline, and each of these were influenced by the social context, political winds and intellectual climate of the time. Following this first finding, in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with individuals who had worked at the apex of the policing of organized crime in Australia, in order to trace their understandings of organized crime across recent history. It was found that organized crime can be understood as an object of the discourse of the politics of law and order, the discourse of international securitization, new public management in policing business, and involves the forging of outlaw identities. Therefore, there are multiple meanings of organized crime that have arisen from an interconnected set of social, political, moral and bureaucratic discourses. The institutional response to organized crime, including law and policing, was subsequently examined. An extensive legislative framework has been enacted at multiple jurisdictional levels, and the problem of organized crime was found to be deserving of unique institutional powers and configurations to deal with it. The social problem of organized crime, as constituted by the discourses mapped out in this research, has led to a new generation of increasingly preemptive and punitive laws, and the creation of new state agencies with amplified powers. That is, the response to organized crime, with a focus on criminalization and enforcement, has been driven and shaped by the four discourses and the way in which the phenomenon is constructed within them. An appreciation of the nexus between the emergence of the social problem, and the formation of institutions in response to it, is important in developing a more complete understanding of the various dimensions of organized crime.

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Suomessa esitutkintaa johtaa pääsääntöisesti poliisi lukuun ottamatta poliisin tekemäksi epäiltyjä rikoksia, joissa tutkinnanjohtajana on syyttäjä. Poliisin johtama esitutkinta ei ole kansainvälisesti tyypillisin tapa järjestää poliisi- ja syyttäjäviranomaisten välinen toimivallanjako. Syyttäjän tehtävänä on rikosvastuun toteuttaminen asianosaisten oikeusturva huomioon ottaen. Syyttäjä siten viime kädessä vastaa siitä, että rikosasia on selvitetty asianmukaisesti. Suomessa syyttäjällä on tämä vastuu, mutta hänellä ei ole täysin sitä vastaavaa valtaa päättää esitutkinnan suorittamisesta ja ohjaamisesta, koska esitutkinnan johtoa ei ole säädetty hänen tehtäväkseen. Tutkielmassa pohditaan, pitäisikö syyttäjän toimia tutkinnanjohtajana Suomessa myös muissa kuin ns. poliisirikosasioissa. Kysymyksen taustoittamiseksi tutkielmassa esitellään sekä tutkinnanjohtajan että syyttäjän vastuuta ja tehtäviä esitutkinnassa nykyisen esitutkintalainsäädännön mukaan. Lainsäädäntöhistoriaa kuvaamalla hahmotetaan sitä, miten nykyiseen toimivallanjakomalliin on päädytty. Vastausta tutkimuskysymykseen haetaan esittelemällä kolme eri mallia siitä, miten toimivallanjako poliisin ja syyttäjän välillä voidaan järjestää. Ensimmäinen malli on voimassa olevaan esitutkintalakiin perustuva järjestely, jossa syyttäjä osallistuu esitutkintaan ns. esitutkintayhteistyön kautta. Toinen malli on Ruotsin lainsäädännön mukainen vastuunjako, jossa syyttäjä yksinkertaisia rikosasioita lukuun ottamatta vastaa esitutkinnan johtamisesta. Kolmas malli on Suomessa tuomioistuinlaitoksen kehittämiskomitean ehdottama järjestely, joka sijoittuu syyttäjän valtuuksien laajuuden perusteella edellisten välimaastoon. Tutkimuskysymyksen ratkaisemiseksi tutkielmassa esitellään myös oikeuskirjallisuudessa herännyttä keskustelua syyttäjän asemasta esitutkinnassa. Lisäksi aineistona on käytetty viiden eri syyttäjän haastattelua, joissa on esitetty mielipiteitä syyttäjän tutkinnanjohtajuudesta. Syyttäjän tutkinnanjohtajuuden puolesta ja vastaan puhuvia seikkoja arvioimalla tehdään johtopäätöksiä tutkimuskysymyksestä.

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Tuomioistuimissa käsiteltävissä rikosasioissa tulee usein eteen tilanteita, joissa rikokseen sovellettava lainsäädäntö on rikoksen tekohetken jälkeen joiltain osin muuttunut. Suomessa on vakiintuneesti katsottu, että tällöin sovelletaan pääsääntöisesti rikoksen tekohetken lakia. Jos lainsäädäntö on muuttunut syytetylle edullisemmaksi, tulee kuitenkin tämä tuomitsemishetken lievempi laki sovellettavaksi. Tätä kutsutaan siis rikosoikeuden lievemmän lain periaatteeksi. Sääntö on perusajatukseltaan yksinkertainen, mutta siihen liittyy monia kysymyksiä, joihin lain sanamuoto ei anna vastausta. Tämän kirjoituksen tarkoitus on tuoda esiin näitä kysymyksiä, ja mahdollisimman paljon pyrkiä myös vastaamaan niihin. Lievemmän lain periaatteen soveltamisen ulkopuolelle jäävät lain mukaan määräaikaisiksi tarkoitetut kriminalisoinnit sekä blankorangaistussäännökset. Myös prosessuaaliset seikat on jätetty periaatteen soveltamisalan ulkopuolelle, joitain syyteoikeutta koskevia poikkeuksia lukuun ottamatta. Lakien vertailu tehdään kussakin yksittäistapauksessa erikseen. Tuomioistuimen tulee suorittaa huolellinen soveltamiskoe ja ratkaista asia kokeellisesti kummankin sääntelyn mukaan. Soveltamiskokeessa joudutaan usein arvioimaan tunnusmerkistöissä ja määritelmissä tai yleisissä opeissa tapahtuneita muutoksia. Lopputulosten vertailussa tarkasteltavaksi tulevat niin päärangaistus kuin mahdolliset oheisseuraamukset ja turvaamistoimenpiteetkin. Erimielisyyttä vallitsee kuitenkin siitä, tuleeko ratkaisussa soveltaa vain toisen ajan lainsäädäntöä, vai voidaanko eri aikoina voimassa olleista lainsäädännöistä poimia syytetylle edullisempia palasia ja soveltaa niitä yhdessä. Itse olen sitä mieltä, että tuomioistuimen olisi valittava joko tekohetken tai tuomitsemishetken lainsäädäntö ja sovellettava sitä kokonaisuutena. KP -sopimuksen 15 artikla edellyttää periaatteen soveltamista myös muutoksenhaussa. Näyttäisi siltä, että joissain tapauksissa periaatetta olisi sovellettava vielä lainvoimaisen tuomion täytäntöönpanossakin.

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Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan tietosuojalainsäädännön perusteella portaaliympäristössä henkilörekistereitä pitävälle yritykselle muodostuvaa vastuuta. Siis millaisia olennaisia erityispiirteitä portaalia suunniteltaessa, toteutettaessa ja käytettäessä on huomioitava sekä miten toiminta on järjestettävä, jotta rekisterinpitäjän voidaan katsoa toimivan tietosuojan osalta lainmukaisesti. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan myös rekisterinpitäjän velvollisuutta sopimuksin määrätä ja muutoin ohjeistaa rekisterinpitäjän lukuun toimivien yrityksien toimintaa. Lähestymistapa tutkielmassa on ongelmakeskeistä lainoppia, jossa tarkasteltava tutkimusongelma on juridis-liiketoiminnallis-tekninen. Lähestymistapa edustaa myös ennakoivaa oikeustiedettä ja sen lähtökohtana on että portaalien tietosuojan suunnittelulla, toteutuksella ja sopimuksin voidaan ennakoivasti välttää tietosuojaongelmia, laiminlyöntejä sekä niiden seurauksia. Tutkielma yksinkertaistaa ja havainnollistaa portaalista vastaavan rekisterinpitäjän vastuuta tietosuojasta. Tuotoksena esitetään portaalitoiminnassa sovellettavia yleisohjeita portaalien tietosuojan suunnitteluun, toteutukseen ja sopimusjärjestelyihin. Tutkielman tuotoksista on myös laadittu tiivistelmä, joka on julkaistu tietosuojavaltuutetun toimiston ohjeistuksena rekisterinpitäjille (liite 1).

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Optimal Punishment of Economic Crime: A Study on Bankruptcy Crime This thesis researches whether the punishment practise of bankruptcy crimes is optimal in light of Gary S. Becker’s theory of optimal punishment. According to Becker, a punishment is optimal if it eliminates the expected utility of the crime for the offender and - on the other hand - minimizes the cost of the crime to society. The decision process of the offender is observed through their expected utility of the crime. The expected utility is calculated based on the offender's probability of getting caught, the cost of getting caught and the profit from the crime. All objects including the punishment are measured in cash. The cost of crimes to the society is observed defining the disutility caused by the crime to the society. The disutility is calculated based on the cost of crime prevention, crime damages, punishment execution and the probability of getting caught. If the goal is to minimize the crime profits, the punishments of bankruptcy crimes are not optimal. If the debtors would decide whether or not to commit the crime solely based on economical consideration, the crime rate would be multiple times higher than the current rate is. The prospective offender relies heavily on non-economic aspects in their decision. Most probably social pressure and personal commitment to oblige the laws are major factors in the prospective criminal’s decision-making. The function developed by Becker measuring the cost to society was not useful in the measurement of the optimality of a punishment. The premise of the function that the costs of the society correlate to the costs for the offender from the punishment proves to be unrealistic in observation of the bankruptcy crimes. However, it was observed that majority of the cost of crime for the society are caused by the crime damages. This finding supports the preventive criminal politics.

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Tutkielmassa on arvioitu kilpailuoikeudellista vahingonkorvausta kartellien aiheuttaman ylihintatilanteen seuraamuksena Suomen oikeusjärjestyksessä sekä tarvetta rangaistusluonteisin vahingonkorvauksiin. EU:n komissio haluaa lisätä vahingonkorvausten käyttöä kilpailunrajoitusten seuraamuksena ja on ehdottanut kaksinkertaisia vahingonkorvauksia kartellitapauksissa. Esikuvana on Yhdysvaltain kilpailuoikeudessa käytetty kolminkertainen vahingonkorvaus. Yhdysvalloissa vahingonkorvauksen reaaliarvo on kuitenkin epäedullisten korkosäännösten takia huomattavasti Suomea heikompi, ja kumpikin järjestelmä näyttää päätyvän jotakuinkin samanlaisiin lopputuloksiin. Tämä kyseenalaistaa tarpeen rangaistusluonteisten vahingonkorvausten käyttöönottoon Suomessa. Korvauksen määrää voidaan Suomessa ankaroittaa helpoimmin nykyisen viivästyskorkojärjestelmän puitteissa, sillä rangaistusluonteiset korvaukset olisivat periaatteellisesti erittäin suuri muutos Suomen oikeusjärjestykseen. Suomessa kilpailuoikeudellista vahingonkorvausta säännellään sopimusoikeudessa, vahingonkorvauslaissa ja kilpailunrajoituslaissa. Järjestelmä on jossain määrin hajanainen, mutta oikeudellisesti kattava. Yhdistettynä perusteettoman edun palautukseen ja ryhmäkanteeseen ei Suomen järjestelmään jää merkittäviä oikeudellisia aukkoja, mutta niiden soveltuvuus on toistaiseksi epäselvä. Järjestelmää voitaisiin kuitenkin parantaa tekemällä siitä yhtenäisempi, sillä tällä hetkellä se on varsin sirpaleinen. Suomen kilpailuoikeudellisen vahingonkorvausjärjestelmän suurin heikkous näyttää oikeussääntöjen puutteen sijasta olevan epävarmuus niiden tulkinnasta. Tämä näkyy selvästi niissä harvoissa oikeustapauksissa, jotka on käyty julkisesti, sillä ne ovat olleet erittäin riitaisia. Ankarampia seuraamuksia enemmän tarvitaankin oikeuskäytäntöä, varmuutta sääntöjen tulkinnasta ja laajempi tietoisuus mahdollisuudesta vahingonkorvauksiin kilpailunrajoituksista. Toinen merkittävä este vahingonkorvausten yleistymiselle ovat käytännön syyt, kuten vahingon vähäisyys suhteessa kanteen vaatimaan vaivaan ja kuluriskiin sekä vaikeudet näytön hankkimisessa. Niihin oikeussäännöillä on mahdollista vaikuttaa vain rajallisesti. Tässäkään rangaistusluonteisista vahingonkorvauksista ei ole juuri apua. Kilpailuoikeudellinen vahingonkorvaus voi parhaimmillaan olla merkittävä lisä julkisoikeudelliseen seuraamusjärjestelmään, ja tämän tutkielman perusteella Suomella on hyvät oikeudelliset edellytykset sen laajempaan käyttöön. Oikeuskäytäntöä tai lainsäädäntöä kuitenkin tarvitaan tulkinnanvaraisten kohtien selkiyttämiseksi, jotta vahingonkorvaus voi lunastaa siihen asetetut odotukset.