Assessment of the Occurrence and Potential Risks of Pharmaceuticals and their Metabolites in Fish and Water Using Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

A comprehensive method for the analysis of 11 target pharmaceuticals representing multiple therapeutic classes was developed for biological tissues (fish) and water. Water samples were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE), while fish tissue homogenates were extracted using accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) followed by mixed-mode cation exchange SPE cleanup and analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Among the 11 target pharmaceuticals analyzed, trimethoprim, caffeine, sulfamethoxazole, diphenhydramine, diltiazem, carbamazepine, erythromycin and fluoxetine were consistently detected in reclaimed water. On the other hand, caffeine, diphenhydramine and carbamazepine were consistently detected in fish and surface water samples. In order to understand the uptake and depuration of pharmaceuticals as well as bioconcentration factors (BCFs) under the worst-case conditions, mosquito fish were exposed to reclaimed water under static-renewal for 7 days, followed by a 14-day depuration phase in clean water. Characterization of the exposure media revealed the presence of 26 pharmaceuticals while 5 pharmaceuticals including caffeine, diphenhydramine, diltiazem, carbamazepine, and ibuprofen were present in the organisms as early as 5 h from the start of the exposure. Liquid chromatography ultra-high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry was explored as a tool to identify and quantify phase II pharmaceutical metabolites in reclaimed water. The resulting data confirmed the presence of acetyl-sulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole glucuronide in reclaimed water. To my knowledge, this is the first known report of sulfamethoxazole glucuronide surviving intact through wastewater treatment plants and occurring in environmental water samples. Finally, five bioaccumulative pharmaceuticals including caffeine, carbamazepine, diltiazem, diphenhydramine and ibuprofen detected in reclaimed water were investigated regarding the acute and chronic risks to aquatic organisms. The results indicated a low potential risk of carbamazepine even under the worst case exposure scenario. Given the dilution factors that affect environmental releases, the risk of exposure to carbamazepine will be even more reduced.

Emergence and fate of siloxanes in waste streams: Release mechanisms, partitioning and persistence in three environmental compartments

Siloxanes are widely used in personal care and industrial products due to their low surface tension, thermal stability, antimicrobial and hydrophobic properties, among other characteristics. Volatile methyl siloxanes (VMS) have been detected both in landfill gas and biogas from anaerobic digesters at wastewater treatment plants. As a result, they are released to gas phase during waste decomposition and wastewater treatment. During transformation processes of digester or landfill gas to energy, siloxanes are converted to silicon oxides, leaving abrasive deposits on engine components. These deposits cause increased maintenance costs and in some cases complete engine overhauls become necessary. ^ The objectives of this study were to compare the VMS types and levels present in biogas generated in the anaerobic digesters and landfills and evaluate the energetics of siloxane transformations under anaerobic conditions. Siloxane emissions, resulting from disposal of silicone-based materials, are expected to increase by 29% within the next 10 years. Estimated concentrations and the risk factors of exposure to siloxanes were evaluated based on the initial concentrations, partitioning characteristics and persistence. It was determined that D4 has the highest risk factor associated to bioaccumulation in liquid and solid phase, whereas D5 was highest in gas phase. Additionally, as siloxanes are combusted, the particle size range causes them to be potentially hazardous to human health. When inhaled, they may affix onto the alveoli of the lungs and may lead to development of silicosis. Siloxane-based COD-loading was evaluated and determined to be an insignificant factor concerning COD limits in wastewater. ^ Removal of siloxane compounds is recommended prior to land application of biosolids or combustion of biogas. A comparison of estimated costs was made between maintenance practices for removal of siloxane deposits and installation/operation of fixed-bed carbon absorption systems. In the majority of cases, the installation of fixed-bed adsorption systems would not be a feasible option for the sole purpose of siloxane removal. However they may be utilized to remove additional compounds simultaneously.^

Assessment of the Occurrence and Potential Risks of Antibiotics and their Metabolites in South Florida Waters Using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry

An automated on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS method was developed for the quantitation of multiple classes of antibiotics in environmental waters. High sensitivity in the low ng/L range was accomplished by using large volume injections with 10-mL of sample. Positive confirmation of analytes was achieved using two selected reaction monitoring (SRM) transitions per antibiotic and quantitation was performed using an internal standard approach. Samples were extracted using online solid phase extraction, then using column switching technique; extracted samples were immediately passed through liquid chromatography and analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. The total run time per each sample was 20 min. The statistically calculated method detection limits for various environmental samples were between 1.2 and 63 ng/L. Furthermore, the method was validated in terms of precision, accuracy and linearity. The developed analytical methodology was used to measure the occurrence of antibiotics in reclaimed waters (n=56), surface waters (n=53), ground waters (n=8) and drinking waters (n=54) collected from different parts of South Florida. In reclaimed waters, the most frequently detected antibiotics were nalidixic acid, erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole and ofloxacin (19.3-604.9 ng/L). Detection of antibiotics in reclaimed waters indicates that they can’t be completely removed by conventional wastewater treatment process. Furthermore, the average mass loads of antibiotics released into the local environment through reclaimed water were estimated as 0.248 Kg/day. Among the surface waters samples, Miami River (reaching up to 580 ng/L) and Black Creek canal (up to 124 ng/L) showed highest concentrations of antibiotics. No traces of antibiotics were found in ground waters. On the other hand, erythromycin (monitored as anhydro erythromycin) was detected in 82% of the drinking water samples (n.d-66 ng/L). The developed approach is suitable for both research and monitoring applications. Major metabolites of antibiotics in reclaimed wates were identified and quantified using high resolution benchtop Q-Exactive orbitrap mass spectrometer. A phase I metabolite of erythromycin was tentatively identified in full scan based on accurate mass measurement. Using extracted ion chromatogram (XIC), high resolution data-dependent MS/MS spectra and metabolic profiling software the metabolite was identified as desmethyl anhydro erythromycin with molecular formula C36H63NO12 and m/z 702.4423. The molar concentration of the metabolite to erythromycin was in the order of 13 %. To my knowledge, this is the first known report on this metabolite in reclaimed water. Another compound acetyl-sulfamethoxazole, a phase II metabolite of sulfamethoxazole was also identified in reclaimed water and mole fraction of the metabolite represent 36 %, of the cumulative sulfamethoxazole concentration. The results were illustrating the importance to include metabolites also in the routine analysis to obtain a mass balance for better understanding of the occurrence, fate and distribution of antibiotics in the environment. Finally, all the antibiotics detected in reclaimed and surface waters were investigated to assess the potential risk to the aquatic organisms. The surface water antibiotic concentrations that represented the real time exposure conditions revealed that the macrolide antibiotics, erythromycin, clarithromycin and tylosin along with quinolone antibiotic, ciprofloxacin were suspected to induce high toxicity to aquatic biota. Preliminary results showing that, among the antibiotic groups tested, macrolides posed the highest ecological threat, and therefore, they may need to be further evaluated with, long-term exposure studies considering bioaccumulation factors and more number of species selected. Overall, the occurrence of antibiotics in aquatic environment is posing an ecological health concern.

Toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls and N-phenyl-1-naphthylamine in the juvenile turtle, Chelydra serpentina

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and substituted phenylamine antioxidants (SPAs) are two chemical groups that have been used in multiple Canadian industrial processes. Despite the production ban of PCBs in North America in 1977, they are still ubiquitous in the environment and in wildlife tissues. Previous studies of fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals have shown that PCBs are toxic and act as endocrine disruptors. In contrast, SPAs, specifically N-phenyl-1-naphthylamine (PANA), have received very little attention despite their current use in Canada and their expected environmental releases. The effects of PCB and PANA exposures in reptiles remain unknown thus, juvenile Chelydra serpentina were used in this thesis as a model vertebrate to fill in missing toxicity research gaps due to their importance as an environmental indicator. First, food pellets were spiked at an environmentally relevant concentration of the PCB mixture Aroclor 1254 (A1254) to model hepatic bioaccumulation (0.45 μg/g A1254 for 31 days) and depuration (clean food for 50 days) of PCBs in turtles. No significant differences in PCB concentrations were observed between the control and treated animals, suggesting that juvenile turtles exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of PCBs can likely detoxify low concentrations of PCBs. Additionally, two dose-response experiments were performed using A1254 or PANA spiked food (0-12.7 μg/g and 0-3,446 μg/g, respectively) to determine hepatic toxicity and bioaccumulation in juvenile C. serpentina. An increase in hepatic cyp1a was observed when exposed to the highest dose of both chemicals: 1) for A1254, induction correlated to the significant increase in hepatic PCB congeners that are known to be metabolized by CYP1A; and 2) for PANA, induction suggested that CYP1A has a potential role in its detoxification. PCBs are known endocrine disruptors, but no significant changes were observed for both thyroid receptors (alpha and beta) or by estrogen and androgen receptors. This lack of response, also noted in the PANA exposure, suggests that C. serpentina is less sensitive to endocrine disruption than other vertebrates. Furthermore, the expression of genes involved in cellular stress was not altered in PCB and PANA exposed animals, supporting the resilience of turtles to oxidative stress. This is the first study to demonstrate the toxicity of PCBs and PANA in C. serpentina, demonstrating the turtle’s high tolerance to contamination.

Étude de la symbiose actinorhizienne chez l'aulne en présence de résidus miniers aurifères acidogènes

Les concentrations de métaux lourds retrouvées dans les sols augmentent considérablement depuis la révolution industrielle et s’accumulent quotidiennement dans la biosphère. Ces composés métalliques persisteront pendant plusieurs années au niveau des différents écosystèmes affectés et voyageront dans les chaînes alimentaires par bioaccumulation. Les activités humaines, telle que l’industrie minière contribuent activement à cette problématique environnementale. En effet, l’excavation minière perturbe la roche-mère et favorise l’oxydation des métaux lourds sulfurés qui, lentement, produiront de l’acide sulfurique. Cette acidification peut mobiliser les éléments métalliques stables en condition neutre ou alcaline. Ces phénomènes induisent la formation du drainage minier acide (DMA) qui peut contaminer les cours d’eau ou les nappes phréatiques à proximité. Plusieurs mines sont situées en Abitibi-Témiscamingue en raison de l’abondance de divers minerais dans la roche mère tels que l’or. Une importante quantité de déchets industriels est produite lors de l’excavation du minerai, dont les résidus miniers entreposés dans des bassins de rétention extérieurs. Ces bassins prennent de l’expansion quotidiennement autour du site minier substituant la place de la végétation saine et des territoires. Une mise en végétation des sites miniers du Québec est exigée depuis 1995 afin de redonner une apparence naturelle aux sites et limiter le phénomène d’érosion. Depuis 2013, un plan de réaménagement et de restauration des sites exploités est obligatoire selon la loi sur les mines. Ces bassins seront donc ciblés pour effectuer des essais de revégétalisation par l’entremise de plantes actinorhiziennes. Les plantes actinorhiziennes sont des végétaux robustes pouvant coloniser nombreux habitats perturbés et hostiles. L’aulne est une plante actinorhizienne pouvant établir une relation symbiotique avec l’actinobactérie fixatrice d’azote du genre Frankia. La symbiose actinorhizienne est une interaction équitablement profitable entre la plante et la bactérie. Cette symbiose repose sur la capacité de la bactérie à transformer, au niveau des nodules, l’azote atmosphérique en ammonium assimilable grâce à une enzyme spécifique, la nitrogénase. Lorsque la symbiose est bien établie, elle donnera un avantage significatif aux plantes pour leur développement et leur croissance, et ce, même dans un substrat pauvre en nutriments ou contaminé. En effet, la symbiose actinorhizienne permet d’améliorer la structure physicochimique d’un sol et de l’enrichir en azote grâce à la fixation de l’azote atmosphérique. Dans la région de l’Abitibi-Témiscamingue, la mine Doyon est une mine d’or qui détient des sols acidogènes contenant des traces non négligeables de métaux lourds. Ce projet de recherche en microbiologie environnementale avait comme objectif principal d’évaluer la capacité des aulnes rugueux et des aulnes crispés à coloniser des résidus miniers acidogènes aurifères (concentrations différentes de 0 %, 35 %, 65 % et 100 %) avec ou sans l’aide de Frankia. La dispersion des contaminants par les feuilles a aussi été étudiée afin d’évaluer le risque environnemental de l’utilisation des aulnes sur le terrain à des fins de revégétalisation. Les objectifs préliminaires avaient comme but d’évaluer la résistance, de manière individuelle, de la souche ACN10a du genre Frankia (par extrait aqueux) puis des espèces d’aulne aux résidus miniers non stérilisés. Par le fait même, la microflore des résidus miniers a été étudiée dans le but d’isoler des espèces symbiotiques d’endophytes écoadaptées aux conditions arides du site minier Doyon. Concernant les objectifs préliminaires, les résultats ont démontré que la souche ACN10a résiste bien jusqu’à 35 % d’extrait aqueux de résidus miniers de la mine Doyon. Pour les concentrations supérieures à 50 %, Frankia (souche ACN10a) a démontré une respiration cellulaire et des concentrations protéiques décroissantes en raison de la présence d’éléments toxiques biodisponibles dans l’extrait aqueux. Par ailleurs, les aulnes rugueux et crispés ont démontré une tolérance jusqu’à la concentration de 35 % de résidus miniers non stérilisés sans la présence de Frankia. Par la suite, les résultats d’isolement n’ont pas démontré la capacité des aulnes à recruter des bactéries symbiotiques à partir des résidus miniers de la mine Doyon. Concernant l’objectif principal, les résultats ont démontré que l’aulne rugueux résiste mieux que l’aulne crispé jusqu’aux concentrations de 35 % de résidus miniers lorsqu’inoculés en manifestant une meilleure biomasse sèche totale, une plus grande concentration de chlorophylle dans les feuilles et un plus grand nombre spécifique de nodules. L’établissement symbiotique a été affecté par la présence des résidus miniers acidogène révélant que le nombre de site d’infection racinaire diminuait en fonction des concentrations de résidus miniers croissantes (0 %, 35 %, 65 % et 100 %). Ensuite, une analyse des éléments chimiques des feuilles a démontré que le transfert des métaux lourds des résidus miniers vers les feuilles était minime. Les plantes révélant de hautes teneurs en métaux lourds dans leurs feuilles ont développé par le fait même, une faible biomasse aérienne limitant ainsi la dispersion de contaminants lors de la perte des feuilles à l’automne. Le modèle expérimental aulne-Frankia possédait un seuil de tolérance visible à la concentration de 35 % de résidus miniers acidogènes aurifères de la mine Doyon. De plus, la présence de la symbiose actinorhizienne a modulé la distribution de certains éléments chimiques dans les feuilles en comparaison avec les aulnes non-inoculés (molybdène, nickel). Puis, une similarité a été notée dans la composition chimique des feuilles d’aulnes inoculés s’étant développés dans 0 % (témoin positif) et 35 % de résidus miniers.

Liquid biofuels for aviation: valorisation of the by-product biochar

Biochar is a carbonaceous material produced through pyrolysis of biomass. One promising application of biochar is phosphorus recovery from wastewater. Phosphorus is a vital nutrient for plant growth, but its use in fertilizers often leads to runoff or leaching. Wastewater treatment plants discharge large amounts of phosphorus-rich wastewater, contributing to eutrophication and ecological harm. Biochar can sorb phosphorus, retaining it in solid form. In this thesis, two composites made of biomass and dolomite or shells exhibited superior phosphate sorption compared to biochar alone, reaching up to 100% sorption. Biochar also finds use in soil remediation, specifically in cleaning up contaminated soil. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which can be carcinogenic and toxic, can be present in soil. Biochar adsorb PAHs, preventing their leakage or bioaccumulation. Hetero-PAHs, a subclass of PAHs with nitrogen, sulfur, or oxygen atoms in their ring structures, are particularly challenging to degrade. Little is known about their behavior or sorption onto biochar. In this thesis, biochar and activated carbon were effective in immobilizing PAHs and hetero-PAHs in real soils, with rates of immobilization reaching 100%. Biochar performed equally or better than activated carbon, offering a cost-effective alternative due to its lower price. Biochar reduce of metal(loid)s mobility in soil. Metal(loid)s like lead, zinc, and arsenic can contaminate soil through industrial sources, agricultural runoff, and other pollution, and are toxic to plants and animals, rendering the soil unsuitable for agriculture. When biochar is added to contaminated soil, it binds to metal(loid)s, preventing leaching into the environment. A biomass-dolomite composite was compared to activated carbon for immobilizing metal(loid)s in contaminated soils. The composite generally outperformed activated carbon and exhibited the ability to immobilize arsenic. In summary, biochar shows promise for phosphorus recovery, soil remediation, and reducing the mobility of heavy metals, offering cost-effective and sustainable solutions to these environmental challenges.