Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity in the Development of Early Mathematical Skills

The aim of the present set of longitudinal studies was to explore 3-7-year-old children.s Spontaneous FOcusing on Numerosity (SFON) and its relation to early mathematical development. The specific goals were to capture in method and theory the distinct process by which children focus on numerosity as a part of their activities involving exact number recognition, and individual differences in this process that may be informative in the development of more complex number skills. Over the course of conducting the five studies, fifteen novel tasks were progressively developed for the SFON assessments. In the tasks, confounding effects of insufficient number recognition, verbal comprehension, other procedural skills as well as working memory capacity were aimed to be controlled. Furthermore, how children.s individual differences in SFON are related to their development of number sequence, subitizing-based enumeration, object counting and basic arithmetic skills was explored. The effect of social interaction on SFON was tested. Study I captured the first phase of the 3-year longitudinal study with 39 children. It was investigated whether there were differences in 3-year-old children.s tendency to focus on numerosity, and whether these differences were related to the children.s development of cardinality recognition skills from the age of 3 to 4 years. It was found that the two groups of children formed on the basis of their amount of SFON tendency at the age of 3 years differed in their development of recognising and producing small numbers. The children whose SFON tendency was very predominant developed faster in cardinality related skills from the age of 3 to 4 years than the children whose SFON tendency was not as predominant. Thus, children.s development in cardinality recognition skills is related to their SFON tendency. Studies II and III were conducted to investigate, firstly, children.s individual differences in SFON, and, secondly, whether children.s SFON is related to their counting development. Altogether nine tasks were designed for the assessments of spontaneous and guided focusing on numerosity. The longitudinal data of 39 children in Study II from the age of 3.5 to 6 years showed individual differences in SFON at the ages of 4, 5 and 6 years, as well as stability in children.s SFON across tasks used at different ages. The counting skills were assessed at the ages of 3.5, 5 and 6 years. Path analyses indicated a reciprocal tendency in the relationship between SFON and counting development. In Study III, these results on the individual differences in SFON tendency, the stability of SFON across different tasks and the relationship of SFON and mathematical skills were confirmed by a larger-scale cross-sectional study of 183 on average 6.5-year-old children (range 6;0-7;0 years). The significant amount of unique variance that SFON accounted for number sequence elaboration, object counting and basic arithmetic skills stayed statistically significant (partial correlations varying from .27 to .37) when the effects of non-verbal IQ and verbal comprehension were controlled. In addition, to confirm that the SFON tasks assess SFON tendency independently from enumeration skills, guided focusing tasks were used for children who had failed in SFON tasks. It was explored whether these children were able to proceed in similar tasks to SFON tasks once they were guided to focus on number. The results showed that these children.s poor performance in the SFON tasks was not caused by their deficiency in executing the tasks but on lacking focusing on numerosity. The longitudinal Study IV of 39 children aimed at increasing the knowledge of associations between children.s long-term SFON tendency, subitizing-based enumeration and verbal counting skills. Children were tested twice at the age of 4-5 years on their SFON, and once at the age of 5 on their subitizing-based enumeration, number sequence production, as well as on their skills for counting of objects. Results showed considerable stability in SFON tendency measured at different ages, and that there is a positive direct association between SFON and number sequence production. The association between SFON and object counting skills was significantly mediated by subitizing-based enumeration. These results indicate that the associations between the child.s SFON and sub-skills of verbal counting may differ on the basis of how significant a role understanding the cardinal meanings of number words plays in learning these skills. The specific goal of Study V was to investigate whether it is possible to enhance 3-year old children.s SFON tendency, and thus start children.s deliberate practice in early mathematical skills. Participants were 3-year-old children in Finnish day care. The SFON scores and cardinality-related skills of the experimental group of 17 children were compared to the corresponding results of the 17 children in the control group. The results show an experimental effect on SFON tendency and subsequent development in cardinality-related skills during the 6-month period from pretest to delayed posttest in the children with some initial SFON tendency in the experimental group. Social interaction has an effect on children.s SFON tendency. The results of the five studies assert that within a child.s existing mathematical competence, it is possible to distinguish a separate process, which refers to the child.s tendency to spontaneously focus on numerosity. Moreover, there are significant individual differences in children.s SFON at the age of 3-7 years. Moderate stability was found in this tendency across different tasks assessed both at the same and at different ages. Furthermore, SFON tendency is related to the development of early mathematical skills. Educational implications of the findings emphasise, first, the importance of regarding focusing on numerosity as a separate, essential process in the assessments of young children.s mathematical skills. Second, the substantial individual differences in SFON tendency during the childhood years suggest that uncovering and modeling this kind of mathematically meaningful perceiving of the surroundings and tasks could be an efficient tool for promoting young children.s mathematical development, and thus prevent later failures in learning mathematical skills. It is proposed to consider focusing on numerosity as one potential sub-process of activities involving exact number recognition in future studies.

Linguistic skills and trust creation in international business relationships

Today’s international business in highly related to crossing national, cultural and linguistic borders making communication and linguistic skills a vital part of the trade. The purpose of the study is to understand the role of linguistic skills in trust creation in international business relationships. Subobjectives are to discuss the importance of linguistic skills in international business context, to evaluate the strategic value of trust in business relationships and to analyze the extent to which linguistic skills affect trust formation. The scope is restricted to business-to-business markets. The theoretical background consists of different theories and previous studies related to trust and linguistic skills. Based on the theory a new LTS-framework is created to demonstrate a process model of linguistic skills affecting trust creation in international B2B relationships. This study is qualitative using interviews as a data collection method. Altogether eleven interviews were conducted between October 2014 and February 2015. All of the interviewees worked for organizations operating in the field of international business in B2B markets, spoke multiple languages and had a lot of experience in sales and negotiations. This study confirms that linguistic skills are an important part of international business. In many organizations English is used as lingua franca. However, there are several benefits of speaking the mother tongue of the customer. It makes people feel more relaxed and it makes the relationship more intimate and allows to continue developing it at a more personal level. From the strategic point of view trust creates competitive advantage to a company adding strategic value to the business. The data also supported the view that linguistic skills definitely impact the trust formation process. Quickness and easiness could be stated as the main benefits. It was seen that trust forms faster because both parties understand each other better and they become more open about information sharing within a shorter period of time. These findings and the importance of linguistic skills in trust creation should be acknowledged by organizations, especially regarding the human resource management. Boundary spanners are in key positions so special attention should be put into hiring and educating employees which then take care of company’s relationships. Eventually, these benefits are economical and affect to the profitability of the organization

The effect of calculators on the numerical problem-solving skills and attitudes of primary students towards mathematics /

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect that calculators have on the attitudes and numerical problem-solving skills of primary students. The sample used for this research was one of convenience. The sample consisted of two grade 3 classes within the York Region District School Board. The students in the experimental group used calculators for this problem-solving unit. The students in the control group completed the same numerical problem-solving unit without the use of calculators. The pretest-posttest control group design was used for this study. All students involved in this study completed a computational pretest and an attitude pretest. At the end of the study, the students completed a computational posttest. Five students from the experimental group and five students from the control group received their posttests in the form of a taped interview. At the end of the unit, all students completed the attitude scale that they had received before the numerical problem-solving unit once again. Data for qualitative analysis included anecdotal observations, journal entries, and transcribed interviews. The constant comparative method was used to analyze the qualitative data. A t test was also performed on the data to determine whether there were changes in test and attitude scores between the control and experimental group. Overall, the findings of this study support the hypothesis that calculators improve the attitudes of primary students toward mathematics. Also, there is some evidence to suggest that calculators improve the computational skills of grade 3 students.

Teaching Principled negotiation skills to parents and their children : the impact of parental involvement /

This study explored the impact of training parents and children concurrently in principled negotiation skills for the purpose of developing negotiation skills and problem solving abilities in children. A second experimental group was utilized to determine the viability of negotiation skills training of junior elementary students for the purpose of improving problem solving and conflict resolving abilities. The student population in each experimental group was trained using The Program for Young Negotiators (Curhan, 1996). A control group was also established using the remaining grade four and five students attending the participating school. These students did not receive training as part of this study. Student group distribution was as follows: Experimental group 1 (students with parent participant) consisted of 10 (5 grade five and 5 grade 4 students), Experimental group 2 students without parent participant) consisted of 48 (20 grade 4 and 28 grade 5 students), and the Control group 3 (55 grade 4 and 5 students). The impact of training was measured using the Five Factor Negotiation Scale developed for use with the Program for Young Negotiators (Curhan, 1996). This measure was employed as a pre- and post-test questionnaire to the total student population, (113 students) to determine levels of ability in each of the key elements of negotiation, personal initiative, collaboration, communication, conflict based perspective taking, and conflict resolution approach (Nakkula & Nikitopoulos, unpublished). This measure has a coefficient alpha of .75 which is acceptable for this type of affective instrument. As well, open ended ability questions designed to measure ability, knowledge, and behaviour as they relate to negotiation skill application were given to the total student population, (113 students). Finally, journals were maintained by the students in both experimental groups, and informal feedback discussions were held with students and parents participating in the study.The intent of using both qualitative and quantitative measures was to provide an overall perspective of student abilities as they related to principled negotiation skills. While the quantitative measures were from the student perspective, more qualitative information was sought from parents and teachers through informal interviews, discussions, and use of confidential feedback cards. For analysis purposes, the ability questions were randomly selected for Experimental group 2 and Control group 3 in an effort to balance the groups more equitably with Experimental group 1. The findings of this study indicate that students of the junior elementary school age can be taught how to perceive conflict in a more constructive way. However, they are not as likely to use their skills when the conflict is with a sibling as they are with a peer, a teacher, or a parent. While no statistically significant differences between mean scores for Experimental groups 1 and 2 exist some subtle differences are noted. Overall, increases in mean scores for grade 4 students exceeded the increases for grade 5 students within Experimental group 1 . The implication being that younger students benefit more from having a parent trained in principled negoUation skills than older students. The skill level of a parent in principled negotiation can not be underesUmated. Without a consistent and effective role model the likelihood of developing student skill level to a point of automaticity is greatly reduced. Enough so that perhaps the emphasis should be placed on training parents more so than the students.

Using classroom meetings to transfer conflict resolution skills /

This study examined whether daily classroom meetings resulted in the positive transfer of conflict resolution information and skills beyond the formal classroom setting and into the classroom. A control group of sixteen Grade five students received three weeks of conflict resolution training and an experimental group of nineteen Grade five students fi-om the same school received three weeks of conflict resolution training followed by three additional weeks of class meetings. Pretest measures were taken via a scaled questionnaire and short answer questions before the conflict resolution lessons began for the following skills: knowledge of conflict resolution; conflict resolution behaviour; and attitude about using conflict resolution to resolve problems with other people. Posttest measures examined conflict resolution skills following involvement in the study. Students chosen randomly and both teachers were interviewed following the study. The teachers were again interviewed three months after the study. Teacher journal notes rounded out the data. The results of the study indicated that the Grade five boys who participated in three weeks of conflict resolution training did not increase their conflict resolution skills in any of the areas examined. Girls who participated in three weeks of conflict resolution training did not improve in two areas (i.e., behaviour, knowledge) and became less positive about using verbal mediation to resolve conflicts. The Grade five students who participated in three weeks of training and three weeks of class meetings obtained different results. The boys improved significantly in their ability to use verbal mediation to resolve conflicts and were more positive about verbal mediation. They did not become more knowledgeable about verbal mediation. The girls who participated in three weeks of training and three weeks of class meetings were more knowledgeable of conflict resolution and used conflict resolution to solve problems with other people. However, they were significantly less positive about using these skills to resolve problems.

Using stimulus equivalence to teach monetary skills to school-age children with autism

The present study evaluated the use of stimulus equivalence in teaching monetary skills to school aged children with autism. An AB within-subject design with periodic probes was used. At pretest, three participants demonstrated relation DA, an auditory-visual relation (matching dictated coin values to printed coin prices). Using a three-choice match-to-sample procedure, with a multi-component intervention package, these participants were taught two trained relations, BA (matching coins to printed prices) and CA (matching coin combinations to printed prices). Two participants achieved positive tests of equivalence, and the third participant demonstrated emergent performances with a symmetric and transitive relation. In addition, two participants were able to show generalization of learned skills with a parent, in a second naturalistic setting. The present research replicates and extends the results of previous studies by demonstrating that stimulus equivalence can be used to teach an adaptive skill to children with autism.

Exploring the use of effective learning strategies to increase students' reading comprehension and test taking skills /

This study examined the effects of providing students with explicit instruction in how to use a repertoire of reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills when reading and responding to three types of questions (direct, inferential, critical). Specifically, the study examined whether providing students with a "model" of how to read and respond to the text and to the comprehension questions improved their reading comprehension relative to providing them with implicit instruction on reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills. Students' reading comprehension and test taking performance scores were compared as a function of instructional condition. Students from 2 grade 8 classes participated in this study. The reading component of the Canadian Achievement Tests, Third Edition (CAT/3) was used to identify students' level of reading comprehension prior to the formal instructional sessions. Students received either explicit instruction, which involved modelling, or implicit instruction, which consisted of review and discussion of the strategies to be used. Comprehension was measured through the administration of formative tests after each instructional session. The formative tests consisted of reading comprehension questions pertaining to a specific form of text (narrative, informational, graphic). In addition, students completed 3 summative tests and a delayed comprehension test which consisted of the alternative version of the CAT/3 standardized reading assessment. These data served as a posttest measure to determine whether students had shown an improvement in their reading comprehension skills as a result of the program delivery. There were significant differences in students' Canadian Achievement Test performance scores prior to the onset of the study. Students in the implicit group attained significantly higher comprehension scores than did students in the explicit group. The results from the program sessions indicated no significant differences in reading comprehension between the implicit and explicit conditions, with the exception of the 6th session involving the reading and interpreting of graphic text. Students in the explicit group performed significantly better when reading and interpreting graphic text than those in the implicit group. No significant differences were evident between the two study conditions across the three summative tests. Upon completion of the study, the results from the Canadian Achievement Test indicated no significant differences in performance between the two study conditions. The findings from this study reveal the effectiveness of providing students with explicit strategy instruction when reading and responding to various forms of text. Modelling the appropriate reading comprehension strategies and test taking skills enabled students to apply the same thought processes to their own independent work. This form of instruction enabled students in the explicit group to improve in their abilities to comprehend and respond to text and therefore should be incorporated as an effective form of classroom teaching.

Thinking skills in the language arts : an application of cognitive schema theory to the narrative writing process /

A cognitively based instructional program for narrative writing was developed. The effects of using cognitively based schematic planning organizers at the pre-writing stage were evaluated using subjects from the Primary, Junior and Intermediate divisions. Results indicate that the use of organizers based on problem solving significantly improved the organization and the overall quality of narrative writing for students in grades 3, 6 and 7. The magnitude of the improvement of the treatment group over the control group performance in Organization ranged from 10.7% to 22.9%. Statistical and observational data indicate many implications for further research into the cognitive basis for writing and reading; for the improvement and evaluation of school writing programs; for the design of school curricula; and for the inservice education for teachers of writing.

Teaching media literacy skills about commercials: a comparative analysis of media literacy instruction /

In this study, methods of media literacy instruction including analytic activities, production activities, and a combination of analytic and production activities were compared to determine their influence on grade 8 students' knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours towards commercials. The findings showed that media literacy instruction does improve media literacy skills. Specifically, activities that included an analytic component or an analytic and production component were significantly better than activities that included a production component. Participants that completed analytic or analytic and production activities were able to discern media-related terms, target audience, selling techniques, social values, and stereotypes in commercials better than participants that completed only production activities. The research findings also showed obstacles when teaching media literacy. When engaged in analytic activities, the difficulties included locating suitable resources, addressing the competition from commercials, encouraging written reflection, recognizing social values, and discussing racial stereotypes. When engaged in production activities, the difficulties were positioning recording stations, managing group work, organizing ideas, filming the footage, computer issues, and scheduling time. Strategies to overcome these obstacles are described.

Using dramatic activity to enhance Junior Core French students' motivation and oral communication skills /

Junior Core French students' motivation to learn a second language and students' French oral communication skills relating to drama instruction were investigated in this study. Students' increased and improved motivation and oral acquisition were measured by several forms of data collection including journals, questionnaires and surveys, interviews, outside observer and teacher observations, and anecdotal comments. The results indicated that as a result of drama integration in the Junior Core French classroom, grade 5 students, both male and female, were more motivated to participate in second language instruction, thereby increasing and improving their oral communication skills. The findings showed that more males than females reported that drama integration allowed them the opportunity to use their French speaking skills. Research shows that interactive approaches to teaching such as drama give students the motivation and enthusiasm to learn.

A comparison of two computer-assisted remedial reading programs for adolescent unskilled readers : component reading skills and repeated reading

This study compared the relative effectiveness of two computerized remedial reading programs in improving the reading word recognition, rate, and comprehension of adolescent readers demonstrating significant and longstanding reading difficulties. One of the programs involved was Autoskill Component Reading Subskills Program, which provides instruction in isolated letters, syllables, and words, to a point of rapid automatic responding. This program also incorporates reading disability subtypes in its approach. The second program, Read It Again. Sam, delivers a repeated reading strategy. The study also examined the feasibility of using peer tutors in association with these two programs. Grade 9 students at a secondary vocational school who satisfied specific criteria with respect to cognitive and reading ability participated. Eighteen students were randomly assigned to three matched groups, based on prior screening on a battery of reading achievement tests. Two I I groups received training with one of the computer programs; the third group acted as a control and received the remedial reading program offered within the regular classroom. The groups met daily with a trained tutor for approximately 35 minutes, and were required to accumulate twenty hours of instruction. At the conclusion of the program, the pretest battery was repeated. No significant differences were found in the treatment effects of the two computer groups. Each of the two treatment groups was able to effect significantly improved reading word recognition and rate, relative to the control group. Comprehension gains were modest. The treatment groups demonstrated a significant gain, relative to the control group, on one of the three comprehension measures; only trends toward a gain were noted on the remaining two measures. The tutoring partnership appeared to be a viable alternative for the teacher seeking to provide individualized computerized remedial programs for adolescent unskilled readers. Both programs took advantage of computer technology in providing individualized drill and practice, instant feedback, and ongoing recordkeeping. With limited cautions, each of these programs was considered effective and practical for use with adolescent unskilled readers.

A method of evaluating psychomotor tooth preparation skills in preclinical dental programs

Preclinical and clinical tooth important and significant aspect of preparation is an a dental student's education. The associated procedures rely heavily on the development of particular psychomotor skills. The most common format of instruction and evaluation in tooth preparation at many Dental Faculties, emphasizes the product (tooth preparation) and associates performance with characteristics of this product. This integrated study examines which skills should be developed and how a course of instruction can best be structured to develop the necessary skills. The skills which are identified are those necessary for tooth preparation are selected from a psychomotor taxonomy. The purpose of evaluating these skills is identified. Behavioral objectives are set for student performance and the advisability of establishing standards of performance is examined. After reviewing studies related to learning strategy for dental psychomotor the most suitable tasks as well as articles on instructor effectiveness a model is proposed. A pilot project at the University of Toronto, based on this proposed model is described. The paper concludes wi th a discussion of the implications of this proposed model.

Effectiveness of computer training on attentional skills

This paper presents two studies, both examining the efficacy of a computer programme (Captain's Log) in training attentional skills. The population of interest is the traumatically brain injured. Study #1 is a single-case design that offers recommendations for the second, .larger (N=5) inquiry. Study #2 is an eight-week hierarchical treatment programme with a multi-based testing component. Attention, memory, listening comprehension, locus-of-control, self-esteem, visuo-spatial, and general outcome measures are employed within the testing schedule. Results suggest that any improvement was a result of practice effects. With a few single-case exceptions, the participants showed little improvement in the dependent measures.

Effectiveness of life skills training on the total behaviour of six individuals in a job preparation program

In the first week of a Job preparation Program all twelve female members of the class were invited to be part of a study to determine the effect of Life Skills training on their behaviour over the twelve-week period of the program. Six females volunteered and each was interviewed four times during the Job preparation Program and once after the program ended. The interviews focused on three areas of skill deficiency addressed in Life Skills lessons: their knowledge about themselves and attitude towards themselves; their interpersonal relationships; and their problem-solving ability. The participants' comments over the sixteen-week period of the interviews were used to decide if the total behaviour of the participants, (i.e., what they did, thought, and felt) changed so that each became more effective in satisfying her needs. The study suggested that the total behaviour of three of the six women changed so that they became more effective in satisfying their needs. The fourth female's total behaviour changed in only two of the three areas focused on in the interviews, and the total behaviour of the fifth and sixth females showed no change.