Management of Urban Mobility to Control Climate Change in Cities

The need of decarbonization of urban mobility is one of the main priorities for all countries to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets. In general, the transport modes which have experienced the most growth in recent years tend to be the most polluting. Most efforts have been focused on the vehicle efficiency improvements and vehicle fleet renewal; nevertheless more emphasis should be placed on strategies related to the management of urban mobility and modal share. Research of individual travel which analyzes CO2 emissions and car and public transport share in daily mobility will enable better assessments of the potential of urban mobility measures introduced to limit GHG emissions produced by transport in cities. This paper explores the sustainability impacts of daily mobility in Spain using data from two National Travel Surveys (NTSs) (2000 and 2006) and includes a method by which to estimate the CO2 emissions associated with each journey and each surveyed individual. The results demonstrate that in the 2000 to 2006 period, there has been an increase in daily mobility which has led to a 17% increase in CO2 emissions. When separated by transport mode, cars prove to be the main contributor to that increase, followed by public transport. More focus should be directed toward modal shift strategies which not only take the number of journeys into account but also consider distance. The contributions of this paper have potential applications in the assessment of current and future urban transport policies.

Key quality factors and travellers profiles at interurban interchanges

La planificación y las políticas de transporte no pueden descuidar la calidad del servicio, considerando que influye notablemente en el cambio modal del coche hacia otros medios de transporte más sostenibles. El concepto se aplica también a los intercambiadores de transporte público, los nodos del sistema donde se cruzan las distintas redes del transporte público y privado. Aunque se han logrado numerosos avances para medir y evaluar la calidad en el sector del transporte público, se han dedicado relativamente pocos esfuerzos a investigar estos aspectos relacionados con la calidad de los intercambiadores del transporte público. Este trabajo de investigación se concentra en la calidad del servicio de la transferencia modal en los intercambiadores interurbanos, según la perspectiva de los viajeros. Su objetivo es identificar los factores clave de la calidad del servicio y los perfiles de los viajeros en los intercambiadores. La investigación es exploratoria y ofrece información acerca de la percepción de los viajeros intermodales relacionada con los aspectos de la calidad, aportando nuevos elementos y datos para adentrarse en estudios más detallados. La metodología del trabajo combina técnicas de análisis estadístico multivariante para analizar los datos de las encuestas sobre la satisfacción de los clientes y se subdivide en tres etapas. En primer lugar, se ha implementado el análisis de correspondencias múltiples para explorar los constructos latentes relacionados con la satisfacción de las características cualitativas de los intercambiadores interurbanos, identificando así los factores clave de la calidad. En segundo lugar, se ha aplicado un análisis de conglomerados de k-medias sobre los factores clave de calidad para clasificar a los viajeros en grupos de usuarios de transportes homogéneos, de acuerdo con su percepción de satisfacción, identificando de este modo los perfiles de los viajeros. Por último, se han formulado sugerencias y recomendaciones sobre la calidad para respaldar la formulación de políticas, estableciendo las prioridades para los intercambiadores interurbanos. La metodología se aplicó en cuatro intercambiadores interurbanos (estaciones de ferrocarriles o de autobuses ) en Madrid, Zaragoza, Gothenburg y Lion, analizando los datos recogidos mediante una encuesta de satisfacción del cliente llevada a cabo en 2011 en los cuatro casos de estudio, donde se interconectan distintos medios de transporte público y privado, de corta y larga distancia. Se recogieron datos sobre la satisfacción de los viajeros con 26 criterios de calidad, así como información sobre aspectos socio-económicos y pautas de comportamiento de viajes. Mediante el análisis de correspondencias múltiples se identificaron 4-5 factores clave de calidad en cada intercambiador, que se asocian principalmente con el sistema de emisión de billetes, el confort y la interconexión, mientras que los viajeros no perciben los temas clásicos como la información. Mediante el análisis de conglomerados se identificaron 2-5 perfiles de viajeros en cada intercambiador. Se reconocieron dos grupos de viajeros en casi todos los casos de estudio: viajeros de cercanía/trabajadores y turistas. Por lo que concierne a las prioridades para apoyar a las partes interesadas en la formulación de políticas, la expedición de billetes es el factor clave para los intercambiadores interurbanos españoles, mientras que la interconexión y los aspectos temporales se destacan en los intercambiadores de Francia y Suecia. Quality of Service can not be neglected in public transport planning and policy making, since it strongly influences modal shifts from car to more sustainable modes. This concept is also related to Public Transport interchanges, the nodes of the transport system where the different sub-systems of public passenger transport and personal vehicles meet. Although a lot of progress has been generally done to measure and assess quality in public transport sector, relatively little investigation has been conducted on quality at PT interchanges. This research work focusses on Quality of Service in the use of transfer facilities at interurban interchanges, according to current travellers’ perspective. It aims at identifying key quality factors and travellers profiles at interurban interchanges. The research is exploratory and offers insight into intermodal travellers’ perception on quality aspects, providing new elements and inputs for more definitive investigation. The methodology of the work combines multivariate statistical techniques to analyse data from customer satisfaction surveys and is subdivided in three steps. Firstly, multiple correspondence analysis was performed to explore latent constructs as concern satisfaction of quality attributes at interurban interchanges, thus identifying the so-called Key Quality Factor. Secondly, k-means cluster analysis was implemented on the key quality factors to classify travellers in homogeneous groups of transport users, according to their perception of satisfaction, thus identifying the so-called Travellers Profiles. Finally, hints and recommendations on quality were identified to support policy making, setting priorities for interurban interchanges. The methodology was applied at four interurban interchanges in Madrid, Zaragoza, Gothenburg and Lyon, analysing the data collected through a customer satisfaction survey carried out in 2011 at the four railway or bus stations where different modes of public and private transport are interconnected covering both short and long trips. Data on travellers’ satisfaction with 26 quality attributes were collected, as well as information on socio-economical and travel patterns. Through multiple correspondence analysis were identified 4-5 key quality factors per interchange. They are mainly related to ticketing, comfort and connectivity, while classical issues, as information, are not perceived as important by travellers’. Through cluster analysis were identified 2-5 travellers profiles per interchange. Two groups of travellers can be found in almost all case studies: commuter / business travellers and holiday travellers. As regards the priorities to support stakeholders in policy making, ticketing is the key-issue for the Spanish interurban interchanges, while connectivity and temporal issues emerge in the French and Swedish case studies.

Management of urban mobility to control climate change in cities in Spain

The need to decarbonize urban mobility is one of the main motivations for all countries to achieve reduction targets for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In general, the transport modes that have experienced the most growth in recent years tend to be the most polluting. Most efforts have focused on improvements in vehicle efficiency and on the renewal of vehicle fleets; more emphasis should be placed on strategies related to the management of urban mobility and modal share. Research of individual travel that analyzes carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and car and public transport share in daily mobility will enable better assessments of the potential of urban mobility measures introduced to limit GHG emissions produced by transport in cities. The climate change impacts of daily mobility in Spain are explored with data from two national travel surveys in 2000 and 2006, and a method for estimating the CO2 emissions associated with each journey and each surveyed individual is provided. The results demonstrate that from 2000 to 2006, daily mobility has increased and has led to a 17% increase in CO2 emissions. When these results are separated by transport mode, cars prove to be the main contributor to that increase, followed by public transport. More focus should be directed toward modal shift strategies, which take into account not only the number of journeys but also the distance traveled. These contributions have potential applications in the assessment of current and future urban transport policies related to low-carbon urban transportation.

Quality of bus services performance: benefits of real time passenger information systems

One of the main problems in urban areas is the steady growth in car ownership and traffic levels. Therefore, the challenge of sustainability is focused on a shift of the demand for mobility from cars to collective means of transport. For this purpose, buses are a key element of the public transport systems. In this respect Real Time Passenger Information (RTPI) systems help people change their travel behaviour towards more sustainable transport modes. This paper provides an assessment methodology which evaluates how RTPI systems improve the quality of bus services performance in two European cities, Madrid and Bremerhaven. In the case of Madrid, bus punctuality has increased by 3%. Regarding the travellers perception, Madrid raised its quality of service by 6% while Bremerhaven increased by 13%. On the other hand, the users¿ perception of Public Transport (PT) image increased by 14%.

Key quality factors at urban interchanges.

Quality of service should not be overlooked in public transport planning and policy making, as it influences modal shift from car use to more sustainable means. Little research has been conducted on the quality of public transport interchanges from the perspective of current travellers (i.e. perceived quality). This work is thus aimed at identifying key quality factors in urban interchanges, through an exploratory approach (multiple correspondence analysis) that provides novel elements for further research. The methodology was applied at interchanges in Madrid and Gothenburg and the data used in the analysis were collected through customer satisfaction surveys conducted in 2011. The analysis identified five key quality factors per interchange. Ticketing plays a key role at both interchanges while physical and environmental issues emerged at Avenida de America in Madrid, and services, temporal issues and interconnectivity characterise Gothenburg central station. Compared with other quality aspects, classical issues such as safety/security and information are not perceived as important by intermodal travellers.

Assessment of innovative measures implemented in European bus systems using key performance indicators

This paper reports the results of the assessment of a range of measures implemented in bus systems in five European cities to improve the use of public transport by increasing its attractiveness and enhancing its image in urban areas. This research was conducted as part of the EBSF project (European Bus System of the Future) from 2008 to 2012. New buses (prototypes), new vehicle and infrastructure technologies, and operational best practices were introduced, all of which were combined in a system approach. The measures were assessed using multicriteria analysis to simultaneously evaluate a certain number of criteria that need to be aggregated. Each criterion is measured by one or more key performance indicators (KPI) calculated in two scenarios (reference scenario, with no measure implemented; and project scenario, with the implementation of some measures), in order to evaluate the difference in the KPI performance between the reference and project scenario. The results indicate that the measures produce a greater benefit in issues related to bus system productivity and customer satisfaction, with the greatest impact on aspects of perceptions of comfort, cleanliness and quality of service, information to passengers and environmental issues. The study also reveals that the implementation of several measures has greater social utility than very specific and isolated measures.

Canberra's Afterlife. Highpressure Crystals and the Bush Capital Dream

Canberra, the ?Bush Capital? of Australia, was a project torn between ambition and avoidance. For fear of upsetting Sydney or Melbourne, its location avoided larger territorial aspirations but its crystalline winning scheme was bold, and contained the promise of enlightened irradiation. Postwar Canberra, like so many other cities at the time, let its future be designed by Cold-War traffic engineers, who confidently turned dream into sprawl and highways. Although Canberra s mix of ambition and banality, of symbolic desire and structural normalcy, may be precisely what a good city is all about, it probably contains these in defective proportions. What Canberra needs is just a little more of itself, in different amounts, to a higher pressure from the inside. We can easily imagine the multiplying of the original Griffin plan, adding the city onto itself, organizing the recent sprawl with new nodes and public transport with more urban streets between them. With this reclaimed space for higher density, Canberra can then grow from the inside instead of sprawling away, lowering its expenditure on transport and its carbon and sustainability footprint. The new nodes will be denser and allow for variety and change in its programmatic design. Minor but detailed changes in street and public space design will also allow for easier multi-species (people, animals?) access to urban and natural resources. Video brief of the project: http://vimeo.com/45799435

Emergencia y convergencia de las corrientes urbanísticas alternativas al desarrollo disperso. Europa y los EE.UU. 1980/2010

La presente tesis doctoral identifica el reciente fenómeno de la emergenciai de corrientes urbanísticas que actúan en la periferia urbana a partir de una concepción del diseño urbano que propugna modelos más compactos, a escala humana, de carácter integral y sostenible, como alternativa al desarrollo disperso y difusoii que caracteriza en gran medida a la ciudad contemporánea. Se develan las diferencias de origen y las coincidencias entre las distintas líneas de pensamiento que definen a estas emergentes corrientes alternativas, situándolas dentro de determinados enfoques planteados en la presente tesis, y demostrando con ello, las progresivas áreas de convergencia que permiten su ordenamiento como fenómeno histórico común. Estas distintas líneas de pensamiento, que derivan en las corrientes urbanísticas alternativas, se manifiestan primeramente como reacción a las operaciones modernistas de la posguerra, pero crecientemente expresan una visión contestataria a la expansión urbana descontrolada iii, de bajas densidades, zonificación excluyente y dependiente del automóvil; modelo asociado a las autopistas urbanas, los llamados nuevos artefactos urbanos y las grandes parcelas destinadas a proyectos habitacionales. Una realidad expresada en variados contextos en el ámbito de la globalización económica y cultural que, en gran medida, se singulariza como responsable de las profundas transformaciones urbanas, de la consecuente gradual pérdida de habitabilidad en las ciudades y del impacto sobre el medio natural; cuestión a tratar en el “Marco conceptual” referido al contexto y problema de la tesis. Se estudian los planteamientos fundamentales que postulan estas corrientes alternativas en el contexto de la expansión urbana horizontal, con el fin de identificar las distintas vertientes o líneas existentes, de establecer sus orígenes, enfoques, vínculos y alcances, permitiendo con ello caracterizar el fenómeno en sí desde una visión original e integradora. Estas corrientes a tratar han surgido en diversos momentos y con diversas particularidades, pero con mayor intensidad, articulación y visibilidad a partir de los años ochenta y especialmente en los noventa del siglo recién pasado, fundamentalmente en Europa y en los Estados Unidos de América, representando el “Cuerpo teórico” de esta tesis. Emergen en un escenario de creciente empoderamiento ciudadano, en tiempos de una mayor conciencia ambiental y social, y desde la convicción extendida de las limitaciones de un desarrollismo que, en términos del territorio físico, se manifiesta en el crecimiento urbano por extensión, incremental y desarticulado; tienen distintos idearios de origen, algunos en aparente contradicción o manifiesta oposición entre sí; se articulan desde diversos énfasis y surgen a partir de distintas aproximaciones. Para poder comprender el fenómeno de manera integral, se identifican y observan las tendencias contemporáneas y las correspondientes corrientes principales del diseño urbano; se indaga en sus discursos críticos y se ordenan en función de tres enfoques, los cuales reúnen los fundamentos esenciales de las distintas miradas críticas al modelo disperso y difuso: el enfoque neotradicional, el enfoque de la movilidad, y el enfoque ecológicoiv. Reconociendo la importancia de las operaciones de renovación urbana en la “ciudad intramuros” y siendo partícipes de estas intervenciones, las diferentes corrientes observadas desde los tres enfoques planteados, tienen un común denominador disciplinar en cuanto a su preocupación por generar actuaciones urbanas viables y practicables que causen un menor impacto sobre el territorio y que ofrezcan las condiciones para mejorar la habitabilidad en la ciudad, asumiendo el crecimiento hacia las periferias desde una aproximación alternativa a los modelos hoy predominantes. Las distintas corrientes, desde los particulares enfoques señalados, pretenden en síntesis, un desarrollo que refuerce el rol del diseño urbano, que promueva modelos más compactosv, de usos mixtos compatibles con la residencia y con espacios públicos de calidad, a una escala apropiada para la movilidad peatonal, favoreciendo de esta manera el uso del transporte público y velando consecuentemente por aquellos aspectos que mejoren las condiciones de sostenibilidad. En definitiva, el ideario de las corrientes caracterizadas en esta tesis como alternativas, se origina y se sostiene a partir de la convicción de situar a la disciplina del diseño urbano en su justa medida en el desarrollo contemporáneo, en el convencimiento de la relevancia del proyecto urbano en el ordenamiento del territorio y el crecimiento de las ciudades actuales. Una convergencia implícita a tratarse en la “Discusión de resultados”. La preocupación que reflejan las distintas corrientes estudiadas por el hábitat construido, en cuanto a su condición de acoger y estimular la dimensión humana de las ciudades, puede resumirse en una cita del arquitecto danés Jan Gehl, que interpreta a muchas de las líneas de pensamiento que se abordan en esta tesis, en cuanto al deseo de crear mejores ciudades: “Aspiramos generar ciudades animadas, saludables, atractivas, sostenibles y seguras, con el propósito de mejorar la calidad de vida de la gente”. ABSTRACT This Ph.D thesis identifies the recent phenomenon of the emergence of alternative urban design currents in the city edge, that focus on a more compact, human-scale oriented, comprehensive and sustainable urban design as an alternative to the overwhelming advance of sprawl that largely characterizes the contemporary city. It singles out the differences in origin, as well as the similarities drawn from the different lines of thought that define these emergent alternative currents, placing them within certain approaches proposed in this thesis, and thereby demonstrating the progressive areas of convergence that allow to arrange them as a common historical phenomenon. Indeed, the different lines of thought that drift towards these alternative urbanistic currents, first appear as a reaction to the post- World War II Modernist housing projects, and increasingly more so as a response to urban sprawl; an ever expanding phenomemnon expressed in different contexts within the economic and cultural globalization, largely singled out as being responsible for the deep urban transformations, the consequent gradual loss of livability and the impact on natural environment, setting the “Conceptual framework” of this thesis. Within the context of urban sprawl, the fundamental principles of these alternative currents are studied to establish their origins, approaches, linkages and scope, in order to zero in on the various aspects or existing lines and thereby allowing the identification of the phenomenon from an original and inclusive vision. The alternative currents to be dealt with, emerged at different times and with diverse characteristics, nonetheless it is in the eighties and especially during the nineties, mainly in Europe and the United States, where they appear with greater intensity, coordination and visibility, representing the “Theoretical body” of this thesis. The above mentioned currents arise in a scenario of increasing citizen empowerment in times of growing environmental and social awareness, along with the widespread conviction of the limitations of a quantitative development expressed as a physical manifestation in urban sprawl. These alternative currents have a different philosophy in origin, some are in apparent contradiction or in definite opposition, being organized from different approaches and emphases. To comprehend this phenomenon, it is necessary to identify and analize the contemporary trends and the main currents of urban design, inquiring and arranging their critical discourses according to three approaches that meet the essential foundations of the various critical perspectives of urban sprawl: the neo-traditional approach, the mobility approach, the ecological approach. Acknowledging the importance of urban renovation in the “Inner City”, and being partakers of these interventions, the different currents identified from these three approaches, concur in their concern for the development of viable and workable alternatives to urban sprawl; models that cause a lower impact on the territory, whilst improving livability in the city. The different currents recognized within the above mentioned approaches, advocate in brief, for a development that strengthens the role of urban design, that encourages more compact models, mixed-uses, and quality public spaces, considering the human scale and walkability; thereby increasing public transport and promoting consequently, the conditions for sustainable development. Ultimately, the philosophy of the so called alternative currents, is based on the belief of placing urban design as a fundamental discipline in contemporary urban development. The concern for the built habitat reflected by the various currents studied, as of their condition to accept and stimulate the human dimension of the city, can be summed up in a quote from Danish architect Jan Gehl, who represents many of the lines of thought addressed, in the belief of creating better cities: “We aspire to create cities that are lively, healthy, attractive, sustainable and safe-and thereby improve people’s quality of life”.

Caracterización y análisis del coste de mejora de la calidad de servicio en transporte urbano en autobús, basado en la metodología ABC (activity based costing)

El estudio de la calidad de servicio en transporte público ha tenido distintos enfoques, tanto en la investigación como en sus aplicaciones prácticas, tales como el desarrollo del método SERVQUAL, los proyectos QUATTRO y EQUIP de la Comisión Europea, el Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual y finalmente el estándar EN 13816, siendo la consideración principal la calidad desde el punto de vista del usuario, es decir, la calidad percibida, cuyo objetivo en la práctica trata de obtener un Índice de Satisfacción del Cliente como medida de la calidad global. Esta aproximación deja de lado aspectos tanto sobre calidad suministrada como sobre los suministradores del servicio, las administraciones y los operadores, particularmente en cuanto a las implicaciones económicas. El objetivo principal de la presente tesis es la estimación del impacto económico real de la mejora de atributos de calidad para un operador de autobús urbano. En el capítulo 2, se lleva a cabo un análisis del estado del arte sobre el estudio de la calidad, tanto de los métodos de estudio, como de su aplicación al campo de transporte público, y, específicamente, del estudio de costes. En los capítulos 3 y 4 se propone la aplicación de la metodología ABC (Activity Based Costing) para el caso de un contrato de servicio de transporte público en autobús en la Comunidad de Madrid, concretamente la conexión de Tres Cantos. Para ello se utilizan datos de encuestas de calidad esperada y percibida por los usuarios, junto con información económica y de actividad, así como entrevistas a personal de la empresa, conformando todo ello una metodología compacta de investigación y análisis. Los resultados de las encuestas y los análisis posteriores identificaron la frecuencia de servicio, la puntualidad de los autobuses y la seguridad de la conducción como las tres variables mas importantes desde el punto de vista del usuario, y ha sido en referencia a estas tres variables sobre las que se ha desarrollado la aplicación del método ABC contenida en el capítulo 5. Los resultados descritos en el capítulo 6 muestran la consistencia y la aplicabilidad de esta metodología, superando las simplificaciones de los procedimientos tradicionales contables. En cuanto a los resultados obtenidos, se ha comprobado que una aproximación tradicional basada en costes por kilometro puede llegar a sobrevalorar los costes asociados a mejoras de calidad hasta tres veces los costes calculados según el método ABC. Finalmente en el capítulo 7 se recogen las principales conclusiones y se apuntan algunas líneas futuras de investigación basadas en mejoras sobre la aplicación y transferibilidad de los resultados. The study of service quality and its implication for transport contracts has several approaches in research and practical applications, such as the development of the SERVQUAL method, the UE QUATTRO and EQUIP research projects, the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual and finally the EN 13816 standard. In all cases the main stream is the consideration of quality from the user’s point of view, thus obtaining a Customer Satisfaction Index as a measurement of the overall service quality. This approach ignores quality consequences for transport providers, authorities and operators, particularly economic implications. The main target of this thesis is to estimate the real economic impact of improving quality attributes for a bus operator. Chapter 2 includes a thorough analysis of the state of the art of general methodologies on service quality, their applications for public transport, and particularly for quality costing. In chapters 3 and 4, the Activity Based Costing (ABC) methodology is proposed for a suburban bus contract in Madrid, Tres Cantos. Perceived and expected quality surveys are used together with economic and performance information, as well as interviews with key staff from the operator. The whole set of surveys, interviews and ABC methodology puts together a comprehensive approach for analysis and research. Surveys and subsequent analysis shows service headway, punctuality and safety as the three most important service attributes from the user’s point of view. The proposed methodology has been applied to these three variables, as described in chapter 5. Results obtained in chapter 6 show the consistency and practicality of this methodology, overcoming simplifications from traditional accounting procedures. According to the latter, a calculation of costs based on mileage can overvalue quality improvements up to three times the results following ABC methodology. Finally, in chapter 7, the main conclusions are highlighted and some future research is suggested in terms of application improvements as well as results transferability.

Análise do impacto do novo plano diretor estratégico da cidade de São Paulo no planejamento de produtos residenciais.

Diferentemente de muitas cidades europeias, a urbanização da cidade de São Paulo ocorreu na medida de seu crescimento econômico e populacional, formando um desenho urbano heterogêneo, sem padrões. A falta de um planejamento eficaz somada à priorização do transporte individual geraram problemas urbanos tais como congestionamentos, degradação ambiental, transporte público incipiente, etc. O novo plano diretor estratégico de São Paulo surge com uma proposta para reorganização da cidade, adensando regiões providas de maior infraestrutura e limitando a densidade populacional das outras regiões. Responsável pelo desenvolvimento imobiliário, o setor de real estate é afetado diretamente pelas novas diretrizes do plano diretor. Neste trabalho, são discutidos os impactos do novo plano diretor no planejamento de produtos residenciais, identificando os efeitos na formação de preços e das tipologias que passarão a ser ofertadas de acordo com as novas diretrizes de uso do solo, bem como as possíveis respostas do mercado, ou seja, empreendedores e a população. A metodologia de pesquisa contou com estudos bibliográficos, coleta de dados em uma incorporadora tradicional da cidade de São Paulo, e estudos de qualidade de investimento. Uma base de dados de terrenos foi submetida ao modelo de modo a comparar os resultados de empreender considerando a legislação anterior e a atual imposta pelo plano. Como resultado, verificou-se que a consequência indireta do plano será o aumento de preço de venda de apartamentos. Para minimizar esse efeito, será necessário: reduzir as taxas de retorno do empreendedor, reduzir as áreas privativas, custos de obra e os custos de terreno. Para os empreendedores, o planejamento de produtos se tornará ainda mais importante, diante das novas limitações e da provável redução de seus resultados financeiros. Ainda, a tendência é que terrenos localizados próximos dos eixos de transporte tenham seus preços de comercialização elevados, e a oferta de apartamentos nessas regiões será de produtos de até 80 metros quadrados. Já os terrenos localizados em regiões de baixo aproveitamento poderão ter a atividade de incorporação inviabilizada, a não ser que haja reduções consideráveis dos custos de terreno.

A "Triple-I" Strategy for the Future of Europe. Bruges European Economic Policy (BEEP) Briefing 10/2005

The paper lays down a strategy consisting of Innovation, Internalisation of Externalities, and Integration – called Triple I. ‘Innovation’ is seen along value chain management in a systems perspective, driven by competition and participation of stakeholders. ‘Internalisation’ refers to endogenous efforts by industry to assess externalities and to foster knowledge generation that leads to benefits for both business and society. ‘Integration’ highlights the role business and its various forms of cooperation might play in policy integration within Europe and beyond. Looking forward towards measures to be taken, the paper explores some frontiers for a partnership between public and private sector: i) Increasing resource productivity, lowering material cost, ii) Energy integration with Southeast Europe and Northern Africa, iii) Urban mobility services and public transport, iv) Tradable emission permits beyond Europe. Finally, some conclusions from the perspective of the College of Europe are drawn.

International congress

Congresses not held 1914-20.

Effect of Australia's walk to work day campaign on adults' active commuting and physical activity behavior

Purpose. To determine whether Australia's Walk to Work Day media campaign resulted in behavioural change among targeted groups. Methods. Pre- and postcampaign telephone surveys of a cohort of adults aged 18 to 65 years (n = 1100, 55% response rate) were randomly sampled from Australian major melropolitan areas. Tests for dependent samples were applied (McNemax chi(2) or paired t-test). Results. Among participants who did not usually actively commute to work was a significant decrease in car only use an increase in walking combined with public transport. Among those who were employed was a significant increase in total time walking (+16 min/wk; t [780] = 2.04, p < .05) and in other moderate physical activity (+120 min/wk; t [1087] = 4.76, p < .005), resulting in a significant decrease in the proportion who were inactive (chi(2) (1) = 6.1, p < .05). Conclusion. Although nonexperimental, the Walk to Work Day initiative elicited short-term changes in targeted behaviors among target groups. Reinforcement by integrating worksite health promotion strategies may be required for sustained effects.

Neighborhood environmental factors correlated with walking near home: Using SPACES

Purpose: The physical environment plays an important role in influencing participation in physical activity, although the specific factors that are correlated with different patterns of walking remain to be determined We examined correlations between physical environmental factors and self-reported walking for recreation and transport near home. Methods: The local neighborhood environments (defined as a 400-m radius from the respondent's home) of 1678 adults were assessed for their suitability for walking. The environmental data were collected during 2000 using the Systematic Pedestrian and Cycling Environmental Scan (SPACES) instrument together with information from other sources. We used logistic regression modeling to examine the relationship between the attributes of the physical environment and the self-reported walking behavior undertaken near home. Results: Functional features were correlated with both walking for recreation (odds ratio (OR) 1.62; 95% confidence interval (Cl): 1.20-2.19) and for transport (OR 1.30; 95% Cl: 0.97-1.73). A well-maintained walking surface was the main functional factor associated with walking for recreation (OR 2.04; 95% Cl: 1.43-2.91) and for transport (OR 2.13; 95% Cl: 1.53-2.96). Destination factors, such as shops and public transport, were significantly correlated with walking for transport (OR 1.80; 95% Cl: 1.33-2.44), but not recreation. Conclusion: The findings suggest that neighborhoods with pedestrian facilities that are attractive and comfortable and where there are local destinations (such as shops and public transport) are associated with walking near home.

Journey to work:exploring difficulties, solutions and the impact of aging

A study was conducted in the UK, as part of the New Dynamics of Ageing Working Late project, of the journey to work among 1215 older workers (age groups 45-49, 50-55, 56-60 and 60 + ). The aim was to identify problems or concerns that they might have with their commute, strategies that have been adopted to address them, and the role that employers can play to assist them. Follow-up interviews with 36 employees identified many strategies for assisting with the problems of journeys to work, ranging from car share and using public transport to flexible working and working some days from home. Further interviews with a sample of 12 mainly larger companies showed that employers feel a responsibility for their workers’ commute, with some offering schemes to assist them, such as adjusting work shift timings to facilitate easier parking. The research suggests that the journey to work presents difficulties for a significant minority of those aged over 45, including issues with cost, stress, health, fatigue and journey time. It may be possible to reduce the impact of these difficulties on employee decisions to change jobs or retire by assisting them to adopt mitigating strategies. It does not appear that the likelihood of experiencing a problem with the journey to work increases as the employee approaches retirement; therefore, any mitigating strategy is likely to help employees of all ages. These strategies have been disseminated to a wider audience through an online resource at www.workinglate.org.