Aggretin, a heterodimeric C-type lectin from Calloselasma rhodostoma (malayan pit viper), stimulates platelets by binding to alpha 2beta 1 integrin and glycoprotein Ib, activating Syk and phospholipase Cgamma 2, but does not involve the glycoprotein VI/Fc receptor gamma chain collagen receptor

Aggretin, a potent platelet activator, was isolated from Calloselasma rhodostoma venom, and 30-amino acid N-terminal sequences of both subunits were determined. Aggretin belongs to the heterodimeric snake C-type lectin family and is thought to activate platelets by binding to platelet glycoprotein alpha(2)beta(1). We now show that binding to glycoprotein (GP) Ib is also required. Aggretin-induced platelet activation was inhibited by a monoclonal antibody to GPIb as well as by antibodies to alpha(2)beta(1). Binding of both of these platelet receptors to aggretin was confirmed by affinity chromatography. No binding of other major platelet membrane glycoproteins, in particular GPVI, to aggretin was detected. Aggretin also activates platelets from Fc receptor gamma chain (Fcgamma)-deficient mice to a greater extent than those from normal control mice, showing that it does not use the GPVI/Fcgamma pathway. Platelets from Fcgamma-deficient mice expressed fibrinogen receptors normally in response to collagen, although they did not aggregate, indicating that these platelets may partly compensate via other receptors including alpha(2)beta(1) or GPIb for the lack of the Fcgamma pathway. Signaling by aggretin involves a dose-dependent lag phase followed by rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of proteins. Among these are p72(SYK), p125(FAK), and PLCgamma2, whereas, in comparison with collagen and convulxin, the Fcgamma subunit neither is phosphorylated nor coprecipitates with p72(SYK). This supports an independent, GPIb- and integrin-based pathway for activation of p72(SYK) not involving the Fcgamma receptor.

Alboaggregin A activates platelets by a mechanism involving glycoprotein VI as well as glycoprotein Ib

The snake venom C-type lectin alboaggregin A (or 50-kd alboaggregin) from Trimeresurus albolabris was previously shown to be a platelet glycoprotein (GP) Ib agonist. However, investigations of the signal transduction induced in platelets showed patterns of tyrosine phosphorylation that were different from those of other GPIb agonists and suggested the presence of an additional receptor. In this study, the binding of biotinylated alboaggregin A to platelet lysates, as well as affinity chromatography evaluations of platelet lysates on an alboaggregin A-coated column, indicated that this other receptor is GPVI. Additional experiments with reagents that inhibit either GPIb or GPVI specifically supported this finding. These experiments also showed that both GPIb and GPVI have a role in the combined signaling and that the overall direction this takes can be influenced by inhibitors of one or the other receptor pathway.

The platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein VI is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily closely related to FcalphaR and the natural killer receptors

We have cloned the platelet collagen receptor glycoprotein (GP) VI from a human bone marrow cDNA library using rapid amplification of cDNA ends with platelet mRNA to complete the 5' end sequence. GPVI was isolated from platelets using affinity chromatography on the snake C-type lectin, convulxin, as a critical step. Internal peptide sequences were obtained, and degenerate primers were designed to amplify a fragment of the GPVI cDNA, which was then used as a probe to screen the library. Purified GPVI, as well as Fab fragments of polyclonal antibodies made against the receptor, inhibited collagen-induced platelet aggregation. The GPVI receptor cDNA has an open reading frame of 1017 base pairs coding for a protein of 339 amino acids including a putative 23-amino acid signal sequence and a 19-amino acid transmembrane domain between residues 247 and 265. GPVI belongs to the immunoglobulin superfamily, and its sequence is closely related to FcalphaR and to the natural killer receptors. Its extracellular chain has two Ig-C2-like domains formed by disulfide bridges. An arginine residue is found in position 3 of the transmembrane portion, which should permit association with Fcgamma and its immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif via a salt bridge. With 51 amino acids, the cytoplasmic tail is relatively long and shows little homology to the C-terminal part of the other family members. The ability of the cloned GPVI cDNA to code for a functional platelet collagen receptor was demonstrated in the megakaryocytic cell line Dami. Dami cells transfected with GPVI cDNA mobilized intracellular Ca(2+) in response to collagen, unlike the nontransfected or mock transfected Dami cells, which do not respond to collagen.

Nonstructural proteins NS2-3 and NS4A of classical swine fever virus: essential features for infectious particle formation

The nonstructural protein NS2-3 of pestiviruses undergoes tightly regulated processing. For bovine viral diarrhea virus it was shown that uncleaved NS2-3 is required for infectious particle formation while cleaved NS3 is essential for genome replication. To further investigate the functions of NS2-3 and NS4A in the pestivirus life cycle, we established T7 RNA polymerase-dependent trans-complementation for p7-NS2-3-4A of classical swine fever virus (CSFV). Expression of NS2-3 and NS4A in trans restored the production of infectious particles from genomes lacking NS2-3 expression. Co-expression of cleaved NS4A was essential. None of the enzymatic activities harbored by NS2-3 were required for infectious particle formation. Importantly, expression of uncleavable NS2-3 together with NS4A rescued infectious particles from a genome lacking NS2, demonstrating that cleaved NS2 per se has no additional essential function. These data indicate that NS2-3 and NS3, each in association with NS4A, have independent functions in the CSFV life cycle.

The metastatic T-cell hybridoma antigen/P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 is required for hematogenous metastasis of lymphomas

Using variants of the murine BW5147 lymphoma cell-line, we have previously identified 3 monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) that discriminate between metastatic and nonmetastatic BW5147-derived T-cell hybridomas and lymphomas, as well as BW5147-unrelated T-lymphomas. These MAbs were reported to recognize an identical membrane-associated sialoglycoprotein, termed "metastatic T-cell hybridoma antigen" (MTH-Ag). Here, we document that the expression pattern of the MTH-Ag on metastatic and nonmetastatic BW5147 variants correlates with that of the P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL-1), a sialomucin involved in leukocyte recruitment to sites of inflammation. Moreover, the MAbs against the MTH-Ag recognize PSGL-1 when it is transfected in MTH-Ag-negative BW5147 variants, suggesting that the MTH-Ag is PSGL-1. Overexpression of MTH-Ag/PSGL-1 in MTH-Ag-negative BW5147 variants did not affect their in vivo malignancy. Yet, down-regulation of MTH-Ag/PSGL-1 expression on metastatic, MTH-Ag-positive BW5147 variants, using an RNA interference (RNAi) approach, resulted, in a dose-dependent manner, in a significant reduction of liver and spleen colonization and a delay in mortality of the recipient mice upon intravenous inoculation. Collectively, these results demonstrate that, although MTH-Ag/PSGL-1 overexpression alone may not be sufficient for successful dissemination and organ colonization, MTH-Ag/PSGL-1 plays a critical role in hematogenous metastasis of lymphoid cancer cells.

A mutation in the human ortholog of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ALG6 gene causes carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome type-Ic

Carbohydrate-deficient glycoprotein syndrome (CDGS) represents a class of genetic diseases characterized by abnormal N-linked glycosylation. CDGS patients show a large number of glycoprotein abnormalities resulting in dysmorphy, encephalopathy, and other organ disorders. The majority of CDGSs described to date are related to an impaired biosynthesis of dolichyl pyrophosphate-linked Glc3Man9GlcNAc2 in the endoplasmic reticulum. Recently, we identified in four related patients a novel type of CDGS characterized by an accumulation of dolichyl pyrophosphate-linked Man9GlcNAc2. Elaborating on the analogy of this finding with the phenotype of alg5 and alg6 Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, we have cloned and analyzed the human orthologs to the ALG5 dolichyl phosphate glucosyltransferase and ALG6 dolichyl pyrophosphate Man9GlcNAc2 alpha1,3-glucosyltransferase in four novel CDGS patients. Although ALG5 was not altered in the patients, a C-->T transition was detected in ALG6 cDNA of all four CDGS patients. The mutation cosegregated with the disease in a Mendelian recessive manner. Expression of the human ALG5 and ALG6 cDNA could partially complement the respective S. cerevisiae alg5 and alg6 deficiency. By contrast, the mutant ALG6 cDNA of CDGS patients failed to revert the hypoglycosylation observed in alg6 yeasts, thereby proving a functional relationship between the alanine to valine substitution introduced by the C-->T transition and the CDGS phenotype. The mutation in the ALG6 alpha1,3-glucosyltransferase gene defines an additional type of CDGS, which we propose to refer to as CDGS type-Ic.

Glycoprotein biosynthesis in a eukaryote lacking the membrane protein Rft1

Mature dolichol-linked oligosaccharides (mDLOs) needed for eukaryotic protein N-glycosylation are synthesized by a multistep pathway in which the biosynthetic lipid intermediate Man5GlcNAc2-PP-dolichol (M5-DLO) flips from the cytoplasmic to the luminal face of the endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum membrane protein Rft1 is intimately involved in mDLO biosynthesis. Yeast genetic analyses implicated Rft1 as the M5-DLO flippase, but because biochemical tests challenged this assignment, the function of Rft1 remains obscure. To understand the role of Rft1, we sought to analyze mDLO biosynthesis in vivo in the complete absence of the protein. Rft1 is essential for yeast viability, and no Rft1-null organisms are currently available. Here, we exploited Trypanosoma brucei (Tb), an early diverging eukaryote whose Rft1 homologue functions in yeast. We report that TbRft1-null procyclic trypanosomes grow nearly normally. They have normal steady-state levels of mDLO and significant N-glycosylation, indicating robust M5-DLO flippase activity. Remarkably, the mutant cells have 30-100-fold greater steady-state levels of M5-DLO than wild-type cells. All N-glycans in the TbRft1-null cells originate from mDLO indicating that the M5-DLO excess is not available for glycosylation. These results suggest that rather than facilitating M5-DLO flipping, Rft1 facilitates conversion of M5-DLO to mDLO by another mechanism, possibly by acting as an M5-DLO chaperone.

Efficacy and effectiveness of an rVSV-vectored vaccine expressing Ebola surface glycoprotein: interim results from the Guinea ring vaccination cluster-randomised trial.

BACKGROUND A recombinant, replication-competent vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccine expressing a surface glycoprotein of Zaire Ebolavirus (rVSV-ZEBOV) is a promising Ebola vaccine candidate. We report the results of an interim analysis of a trial of rVSV-ZEBOV in Guinea, west Africa. METHODS For this open-label, cluster-randomised ring vaccination trial, suspected cases of Ebola virus disease in Basse-Guinée (Guinea, west Africa) were independently ascertained by Ebola response teams as part of a national surveillance system. After laboratory confirmation of a new case, clusters of all contacts and contacts of contacts were defined and randomly allocated 1:1 to immediate vaccination or delayed (21 days later) vaccination with rVSV-ZEBOV (one dose of 2 × 10(7) plaque-forming units, administered intramuscularly in the deltoid muscle). Adults (age ≥18 years) who were not pregnant or breastfeeding were eligible for vaccination. Block randomisation was used, with randomly varying blocks, stratified by location (urban vs rural) and size of rings (≤20 vs >20 individuals). The study is open label and masking of participants and field teams to the time of vaccination is not possible, but Ebola response teams and laboratory workers were unaware of allocation to immediate or delayed vaccination. Taking into account the incubation period of the virus of about 10 days, the prespecified primary outcome was laboratory-confirmed Ebola virus disease with onset of symptoms at least 10 days after randomisation. The primary analysis was per protocol and compared the incidence of Ebola virus disease in eligible and vaccinated individuals in immediate vaccination clusters with the incidence in eligible individuals in delayed vaccination clusters. This trial is registered with the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry, number PACTR201503001057193. FINDINGS Between April 1, 2015, and July 20, 2015, 90 clusters, with a total population of 7651 people were included in the planned interim analysis. 48 of these clusters (4123 people) were randomly assigned to immediate vaccination with rVSV-ZEBOV, and 42 clusters (3528 people) were randomly assigned to delayed vaccination with rVSV-ZEBOV. In the immediate vaccination group, there were no cases of Ebola virus disease with symptom onset at least 10 days after randomisation, whereas in the delayed vaccination group there were 16 cases of Ebola virus disease from seven clusters, showing a vaccine efficacy of 100% (95% CI 74·7-100·0; p=0·0036). No new cases of Ebola virus disease were diagnosed in vaccinees from the immediate or delayed groups from 6 days post-vaccination. At the cluster level, with the inclusion of all eligible adults, vaccine effectiveness was 75·1% (95% CI -7·1 to 94·2; p=0·1791), and 76·3% (95% CI -15·5 to 95·1; p=0·3351) with the inclusion of everyone (eligible or not eligible for vaccination). 43 serious adverse events were reported; one serious adverse event was judged to be causally related to vaccination (a febrile episode in a vaccinated participant, which resolved without sequelae). Assessment of serious adverse events is ongoing. INTERPRETATION The results of this interim analysis indicate that rVSV-ZEBOV might be highly efficacious and safe in preventing Ebola virus disease, and is most likely effective at the population level when delivered during an Ebola virus disease outbreak via a ring vaccination strategy. FUNDING WHO, with support from the Wellcome Trust (UK); Médecins Sans Frontières; the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the Research Council of Norway; and the Canadian Government through the Public Health Agency of Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, International Development Research Centre, and Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development.

MOUSE MAMMARY TUMOR VIRUS-RELATED PROTEINS: ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF A UNIQUE GLYCOPROTEIN

Mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) contained six major proteins, identified as gp55, gp33, p25, pp20, p12, and p10. Immunoprecipitation of cytoplasmic extracts from MMTV-infected, pulse-labeled cells identified three MMTV core-specific precursor proteins, termed Pr78('gag), Pr110('gag), Pr110('gag), and Pr180('gag+). The major intracellular core-specific precursor polyprotein, Pr78('gag), contained antigenic determinants and tryptic peptides characteristic of p25, p12, and p10. Pr110('gag) contained all but one of the leucine-containing tryptic peptides of Pr78('gag), plus several additional peptides. In addition to Pr78('gag) and Pr110('gag), monospecific antisera to virion p12 and p25 also precipitated from pulse-labeled cells a small amount of Pr180('gag+). This large polyprotein contained nearly all of the leucine-containing tryptic peptides of Pr78('gag) and Pr110('gag) plus several additional peptides. By analogy to type-C viral systems, Pr180('gag+) is presumed to represent a gag-pol-specific common precursor which is the major translation product in the synthesis of MMTV RNA-dependent-DNA polymerase. Immunoprecipitation of cytoplasmic extracts from pulse-labeled cells with antisera to gp55 identified two envelope-specific proteins, designated gPr76('env) and gP79('env). The major envelope-specific precursor, gPr76('env), could be labeled with radioactive glucosamine and contained antigenic determinants and tryptic peptides characteristic of gp55 and gp33. A quantitatively minor glycoprotein, gP79('env), contained both fucose and glucosamine and was precipitable from cytoplasmic extracts with monospecific serum to gp55. It is suggested that gP79('env) represents fucosylated gPr76('env) which is transiently synthesized and cleaved rapidly into gp55 and gp33.^ A glycoprotein of 130,00 molecular weight (gP130) was precipitable from the cytoplasm of GR-strain mouse mammary tumor cells by a rabbit antiserum (anti-MMTV) to Gr-strain mouse mammary tumors virus (GR-MMTV). Two dimensional thin layer analysis of ('35)S-methionine-containing peptides revealed that five of nine gp33 peptides and one of seven gp55 peptides were shared by gP130 and gPr76('env). Six of ten p25 peptides and four more core-related peptides were shared by Pr78('gag) and gP130. Protein gP130 also contained several tryptic peptides not found in gPr76('env), or in the core protein precursors Pr78('gag), Pr110('gag), or Pr180('gag+). both gP130 and a second protein, p30, were found in immunoprecipitates of detergent disrupted, isotopically labeled GR-MMTV treated with anti-MMTV serum. Results suggest that antibodies to gP130 in the anti-MMTV serum are capable of recognizing those protein sequences which are not related to viral structural proteins. These gP130-unique peptides are evidently host specific. Polyproteins consisting of juxtaposed host- and virus-related protein tracts have been implicated in the process of cell transformation in other mammalian systems. Therefore, gP130 may be instrinsic to the oncogenic potential of MMTV. ^

Organization and function of platelet glycoprotein Ib-IX complex

Glycoprotein (GP) Ib-IX complex, the second most abundant receptor expressed on the platelet surface, plays critical roles in haemostasis and thrombosis by binding to its ligand, von Willebrand factor (vWF). Defect or malfunction of the complex leads to severe bleeding disorders, heart attack or stroke. Comprised of three type I transmembrane subunits—GPIbα, GPIbβ and GPIX, efficient expression of the GPIb-IX complex requires all three subunits, as evident from genetic mutations identified in the patients and reproduced in transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. However, how the subunits are assembled together and how the complex function is regulated is not fully clear. By probing the interactions among the three subunits in transfected cells, we have demonstrated that the transmembrane domains of the three subunits interact with one another, facilitating formation of the two membrane-proximal disulfide bonds between GPIbα and GPIbβ. We have also identified the interface between extracellular domains of GPIbβ and GPIX, and provided evidence suggesting a direct interaction between extracellular domains of GPIbα and GPIX. All of these interactions are not only critical for correct assembly and consequently efficient expression of the GPIb-IX complex on the cell surface, but also for its function, such as the proper ligand binding, since removing the two inter-subunit disulfide bonds significantly hampers vWF binding to the complex under both static and physiological flow conditions. The two inter-subunit disulfide bonds are also critical for regulating the ectodomain shedding of GPIbα by the GPIbβ cytoplasmic domain. Mutations in the juxtamembrane region of the GPIbβ cytoplasmic domain deregulate GPIbα shedding, and such deregulation is further enhanced when the two inter-subunit disulfide bonds are removed. In summary, we have established the overall organization of the GPIb-IX complex, and the importance of proper organization on its function. ^

Genetic studies of the human plasma orosomucoid (alpha-1 acid glycoprotein)

Orosomucoid (ORM) or alpha-1 acid glycoprotein is an acute phase protein of human plasma whose function is suggested to be the competitive inhibition of cellular recognition by infective agents. Isoelectric focusing (IEF) and immunoblotting have been combined and optimum conditions have been determined for reliable classification of different ORM phenotypes. Addition of 6 M urea in an IEF gel revealed additional microheterogeneity in the ORM system which has not been previously reported. 1,667 individuals from different native ethnic groups of North and South America, Africa and New Guinea have been screened to determine the distribution of ORM alleles. Two common alleles, ORM1*1 and ORM1*2 have been observed and their frequencies were determined. Genetically independent variation consistent with expression of the ORM2 locus was observed in American and African blacks but was not observed in other sampled populations. The population allele frequencies for this new locus were 0.958, 0.025, 0.006, 0.011, for alleles ORM2*1, ORM2*2, ORM2*3, ORM2*4, respectively. Family studies confirm the autosomal codominant inheritance of the phenotypes observed at both ORM loci. ^

Design, synthesis and cellular and molecular pharmacology of 2$\sp\prime$-bromo-4$\sp\prime$-epidaunorubicin (WP401): A novel non-cross-resistant anthracycline antibiotic with the intrinsic ability to circumvent P -glycoprotein-mediated drug resistance

We designed and synthesized a novel daunorubicin (DNR) analogue that effectively circumvents P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-mediated drug resistance. The fully protected carbohydrate intermediate 1,2-dibromoacosamine was prepared from acosamine and effectively coupled to daunomycinone in high yield. Deprotection under alkaline conditions yielded 2$\sp\prime$-bromo-4$\sp\prime$-epidaunorubicin (WP401). The in vitro cytotoxicity and cellular and molecular pharmacology of WP401 were compared with those of DNR in a panel of wild-type cell lines (KB-3-1, P388S, and HL60S) and their multidrug-resistant (MDR) counterparts (KB-V1, P388/DOX, and HL60/DOX). Fluorescent spectrophotometry, flow cytometry, and confocal laser scanning microscopy were used to measure intracellular accumulation, retention, and subcellular distribution of these agents. All MDR cell lines exhibited reduced DNR uptake that was restored, upon incubation with either verapamil (VER) or cyclosporin A (CSA), to the level found in sensitive cell lines. In contrast, the uptake of WP401 was essentially the same in the absence or presence of VER or CSA in all tested cell lines. The in vitro cytotoxicity of WP401 was similar to that of DNR in the sensitive cell lines but significantly higher in resistant cell lines (resistance index (RI) of 2-6 for WP401 vs 75-85 for DNR). To ascertain whether drug-mediated cytotoxicity and retention were accompanied by DNA strand breaks, DNA single- and double-strand breaks were assessed by alkaline elution. High levels of such breaks were obtained using 0.1-2 $\mu$g/mL of WP401 in both sensitive and resistant cells. In contrast, DNR caused strand breaks only in sensitive cells and not much in resistant cells. We also compared drug-induced DNA fragmentation similar to that induced by DNR. However, in P-gp-positive cells, WP401 induced 2- to 5-fold more DNA fragmentation than DNR. This increased DNA strand breakage by WP401 was correlated with its increased uptake and cytotoxicity in these cell lines. Overall these results indicate that WP401 is more cytotoxic than DNR in MDR cells and that this phenomenon might be related to the reduced basicity of the amino group and increased lipophilicity of WP401. ^

Choroid plexus epithelial expression of MDR1 P glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associated protein contribute to the blood–cerebrospinal-fluid drug-permeability barrier

The blood–brain barrier and a blood–cerebrospinal-fluid (CSF) barrier function together to isolate the brain from circulating drugs, toxins, and xenobiotics. The blood–CSF drug-permeability barrier is localized to the epithelium of the choroid plexus (CP). However, the molecular mechanisms regulating drug permeability across the CP epithelium are defined poorly. Herein, we describe a drug-permeability barrier in human and rodent CP mediated by epithelial-specific expression of the MDR1 (multidrug resistance) P glycoprotein (Pgp) and the multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP). Noninvasive single-photon-emission computed tomography with 99mTc-sestamibi, a membrane-permeant radiopharmaceutical whose transport is mediated by both Pgp and MRP, shows a large blood-to-CSF concentration gradient across intact CP epithelium in humans in vivo. In rats, pharmacokinetic analysis with 99mTc-sestamibi determined the concentration gradient to be greater than 100-fold. In membrane fractions of isolated native CP from rat, mouse, and human, the 170-kDa Pgp and 190-kDa MRP are identified readily. Furthermore, the murine proteins are absent in CP isolated from their respective mdr1a/1b(−/−) and mrp(−/−) gene knockout littermates. As determined by immunohistochemical and drug-transport analysis of native CP and polarized epithelial cell cultures derived from neonatal rat CP, Pgp localizes subapically, conferring an apical-to-basal transepithelial permeation barrier to radiolabeled drugs. Conversely, MRP localizes basolaterally, conferring an opposing basal-to-apical drug-permeation barrier. Together, these transporters may coordinate secretion and reabsorption of natural product substrates and therapeutic drugs, including chemotherapeutic agents, antipsychotics, and HIV protease inhibitors, into and out of the central nervous system.

A synthetic all d-amino acid peptide corresponding to the N-terminal sequence of HIV-1 gp41 recognizes the wild-type fusion peptide in the membrane and inhibits HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated cell fusion

Recent studies demonstrated that a synthetic fusion peptide of HIV-1 self-associates in phospholipid membranes and inhibits HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein-mediated cell fusion, presumably by interacting with the N-terminal domain of gp41 and forming inactive heteroaggregates [Kliger, Y., Aharoni, A., Rapaport, D., Jones, P., Blumenthal, R. & Shai, Y. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 13496–13505]. Here, we show that a synthetic all d-amino acid peptide corresponding to the N-terminal sequence of HIV-1 gp41 (D-WT) of HIV-1 associates with its enantiomeric wild-type fusion (WT) peptide in the membrane and inhibits cell fusion mediated by the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein. D-WT does not inhibit cell fusion mediated by the HIV-2 envelope glycoprotein. WT and D-WT are equally potent in inducing membrane fusion. D-WT peptide but not WT peptide is resistant to proteolytic digestion. Structural analysis showed that the CD spectra of D-WT in trifluoroethanol/water is a mirror image of that of WT, and attenuated total reflectance–fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed similar structures and orientation for the two enantiomers in the membrane. The results reveal that the chirality of the synthetic peptide corresponding to the HIV-1 gp41 N-terminal sequence does not play a role in liposome fusion and that the peptides’ chirality is not necessarily required for peptide–peptide interaction within the membrane environment. Furthermore, studies along these lines may provide criteria to design protease-resistant therapeutic agents against HIV and other viruses.