A short history of Brighthelmston, with remarks on its air, and an analysis of its waters, particularly of an uncommon mineral one long discovered, though but lately used.

Published in 1761; re-edited 1829 by James Charles Michell.

The Virginia tourist. Sketches of the springs and mountains of Virginia: containing an eexposition of fields for the touist la Virginia; natural beauties and wonders of the state; also accounts of its mineral springs: and a medical guide to the use of the waters. etc., etc.

Mode of access: Internet.

(Table 1) Mineral phosphorus contents in bottom sediments and interstitial waters of the Southeast Atlantic

Concentrations of mineral phosphorus in interstitial waters from sediments of the Southeast Atlantic generally increases from the ocean bed to the continental slope and shelf. In diatomaceous oozes of the Southwest Africa shelf, phosphorus concentration in fresh interstitial waters reaches 2.5 mg/l in absence of phosphorite concretions and 0.1-0.7 mg/l in their presence. After prolonged storage of samples concentration of dissolved mineral phosphorus sometimes increases up to 7-8 mg/l. The key factor regulating phosphorus content of solid and liquid phases of unaltered sediments are content and composition of organic matter.

Soil mineral genesis and distribution in a saline lake landscape of the Pantanal Wetland, Brazil

The origin of the saline lakes in the Pantanal wetland has been classically attributed to processes occurring in past periods. However, recent studies have suggested that saline water is currently forming from evaporative concentration of fresh water, which is provided annually by seasonal floods. Major elements (Ca, Mg, K) and alkalinity appear to be geochemically controlled during the concentration of waters and may be involved in the formation of carbonates and clay minerals around the saline lakes. The mineralogy of soils associated with a representative saline lake was investigated using XRD, TEM-EDS, and ICP-MS in order to identify the composition and genesis of the secondary minerals suspected to be involved in the control of major elements. The results showed that Ca, Mg, and K effectively undergo oversaturation and precipitation as the waters become more saline. These elements are incorporated in the authigenically formed carbonates, smectites, and micas surrounding the saline lake. The control of Ca occurs by precipitation of calcite and dolomite in nodules while Mg and K are mainly involved in the neoformation of Mg-smectites (stevensitic and saponitic minerals) and, probably, iron-enriched micas (ferric-illite) in surface and subsurface horizons. Therefore, our study confirms that the salinity of Pantanal, historically attributed to inheritance from former regimes, has a contribution of current processes. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Flavoured versus natural waters: macromineral (Ca, Mg, K, Na) and micromineral (Fe, Cu, Zn) contents

Macro (Ca, Mg, K, Na) and micromineral (Fe, Zn, Cu) composition of 39 waters was analysed. Determinations were made by atomic flame spectrophotometry for macrominerals and electrothermic atomisation in graphite furnace for microminerals. Mineral contents of still or sparkling natural waters (without flavours) changed from brand to brand. Mann–Whitney test was used to search for significant differences between flavoured and natural waters. For that, the concentration of each mineral was compared to the presence of flavours, preservatives, acidifying agents, fruit juice and/or sweeteners, according to the labelled composition. The statistical study demonstrated that flavoured waters generally have increased contents of K, Na, Fe and Cu. The added preservatives also led to significant differences in the mineral composition. Acidifying agents and fruit juice can also be correlated to the increase of Mg, K, Na, Fe and Cu. Sweeteners do not provide any significant difference in Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn contents.

Omnivory and resource - sharing in nutrient - deficient Rio Negro waters: stabilization of biodiversity?

Amazonian biodiversity is notorious, this is also valid for the fauna of the mineral-deficient waters of the Rio Negro System. Some 25 years of research on the benthic fauna of Central Amazonian streams resulted in species-rich foodwebs with a high degree of omnivory within dense animal communities. To exemplify the taxonomic range of omnivorous consumers, the detailed resource spectra of 18 consumer species, including Protozoa (2 species), Platyhelminthes (1 species), insects (2 species), fish (6 species) and shrimps (Decapoda, 7 species), associated primarily with the benthic habitats of Rio Negro tributaries, are presented. Special features of omnivory are characterized, and the importance of litter-decomposing fungi as essential energy input into the foodwebs is documented. It is shown that general omnivory -diverse omnivore consumers sharing most of the resource types- is a prevalent feature. The relevance of this general omnivory for the maintenance of biodiversity is discussed.

Caution on the storage of waters and aqueous solutions in plastic containers for hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope analysis

RATIONALE The choice of containers for storage of aqueous samples between their collection, transport and water hydrogen (2H) and oxygen (18O) stable isotope analysis is a topic of concern for a wide range of fields in environmental, geological, biomedical, food, and forensic sciences. The transport and separation of water molecules during water vapor or liquid uptake by sorption or solution and the diffusive transport of water molecules through organic polymer material by permeation or pervaporation may entail an isotopic fractionation. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the extent of such fractionation. METHODS Sixteen bottle-like containers of eleven different organic polymers, including low and high density polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and perfluoroalkoxy-Teflon (PFA), of different wall thickness and size were completely filled with the same mineral water and stored for 659?days under the same conditions of temperature and humidity. Particular care was exercised to keep the bottles tightly closed and prevent loss of water vapor through the seals. RESULTS Changes of up to +5 parts per thousand for d2H values and +2.0 parts per thousand for d18O values were measured for water after more than 1?year of storage within a plastic container, with the magnitude of change depending mainly on the type of organic polymer, wall thickness, and container size. The most important variations were measured for the PET and PC bottles. Waters stored in glass bottles with Polyseal (TM) cone-lined PP screw caps and thick-walled HDPE or PFA containers with linerless screw caps having an integrally molded inner sealing ring preserved their original d2H and d18O values. The carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen stable isotope compositions of the organic polymeric materials were also determined. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study clearly show that for precise and accurate measurements of the water stable isotope composition in aqueous solutions, rigorous sampling and storage procedures are needed both for laboratory standards and for unknown samples. Copyright (c) 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

SOIL PHOSPHORUS THRESHOLDS IN EVALUATING RISK OF ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFER TO SURFACE WATERS IN SANTA CATARINA, BRAZIL

The State of Santa Catarina, Brazil, has agricultural and livestock activities, such as pig farming, that are responsible for adding large amounts of phosphorus (P) to soils. However, a method is required to evaluate the environmental risk of these high soil P levels. One possible method for evaluating the environmental risk of P fertilization, whether organic or mineral, is to establish threshold levels of soil available P, measured by Mehlich-1 extractions, below which there is not a high risk of P transfer from the soil to surface waters. However, the Mehlich-1 extractant is sensitive to soil clay content, and that factor should be considered when establishing such P-thresholds. The objective of this study was to determine P-thresholds using the Mehlich-1 extractant for soils with different clay contents in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Soil from the B-horizon of an Oxisol with 800 g kg-1 clay was mixed with different amounts of sand to prepare artificial soils with 200, 400, 600, and 800 g kg-1 clay. The artificial soils were incubated for 30 days with moisture content at 80 % of field capacity to stabilize their physicochemical properties, followed by additional incubation for 30 days after liming to raise the pH(H2O) to 6.0. Soil P sorption curves were produced, and the maximum sorption (Pmax) was determined using the Langmuir model for each soil texture evaluated. Based on the Pmax values, seven rates of P were added to four replicates of each soil, and incubated for 20 days more. Following incubation, available P contents (P-Mehlich-1) and P dissolved in the soil solution (P-water) were determined. A change-point value (the P-Mehlich-1 value above which P-water starts increasing sharply) was calculated through the use of segmented equations. The maximum level of P that a soil might safely adsorb (P-threshold) was defined as 80 % of the change-point value to maintain a margin for environmental safety. The P-threshold value, in mg dm-3, was dependent on the soil clay content according to the model P-threshold = 40 + Clay, where the soil clay content is expressed as a percentage. The model was tested in 82 diverse soil samples from the State of Santa Catarina and was able to distinguish samples with high and low environmental risk.

Fe-sulphate-rich evaporative mineral precipitates from the Rio Tinto, southwest Spain

The soluble metal sulphate salts melanterite, rozenite, rhomboclase, szornolnokite, copiapite, coquimbite, hexahydrite and halotrichite, together with gypsum, have been identified, some for the first time oil the banks of the Rio Tinto, SW Spain. Secondary Fe-sulphate minerals call form directly from evaporating acid, sulphate-rich Solutions as a result of pyrite oxidation. Chemical analyses of mixtures of these salt minerals indicate concentrations of Fe (up to 31 wt.%), Mg (up to 4 wt.%), Cu (up to 2 wt.%) and Zn (up to wt.%). These minerals are shown to act as transient storage Cor metals and can store on average up to 10% (9.5 - 11%) and 22% (20-23%) Zn and Cu respectively, of the total discharge of the Rio Tinto during the summer period. Melanterite and rozenite precipitates at Rio Tinto are only found in association with very acidic drainage waters (pH <1.0) draining directly from pyritic waste piles. Copiapite precipitates abundantly oil the banks of the Rio Tinto by (1) direct evaporation of the river water; or (2) as part of a paragenetic sequence with the inclusion of minor halotrichite, indicating natural dehydration and decomposition. The natural occurrences are comparable with the process of paragenesis from the evaporation of Rio Tinto river water under laboratory experiments resulting in the formation of aluminocopiapite, halotrichite, coquimbite, voltaite and gypsum.

Effects of acid sulphate on DOC release in mineral soils: the influence of SO42−retention and Al release

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in acid-sensitive upland waters is dominated by allochthonous inputs from organic-rich soils, yet inter-site variability in soil DOC release to changes in acidity has received scant attention in spite of the reported differences between locations in surface water DOC trends over the last few decades. In a previous paper, we demonstrated that pH-related retention of DOC in O horizon soils was influenced by acid-base status, particularly the exchangeable Al content. In the present paper, we investigate the effect of sulphate additions (0–437 μeq l−1) on DOC release in the mineral B horizon soils from the same locations. Dissolved organic carbon release decreased with declining pH in all soils, although the shape of the pH-DOC relationships differed between locations, reflecting the multiple factors controlling DOC mobility. The release of DOC decreased by 32–91% in the treatment with the largest acid input (437 μeq l−1), with the greatest decreases occurring in soils with very small % base saturation (BS, <3%) and/or large capacity for sulphate (SO42−) retention (up to 35% of added SO42−). The greatest DOC release occurred in the soil with the largest initial base status (12% BS). These results support our earlier conclusions that differences in acid-base status between soils alter the sensitivity of DOC release to similar sulphur deposition declines. However,superimposed on this is the capacity of mineral soils to sorb DOC and SO42−, and more work is needed to determine the fate of sorbed DOC under conditions of increasing pH and decreasing SO42−.

Estudos isotópicos (Pb, O, H, S) em zonas alteradas e mineralizadas do depósito cupro-aurífero Visconde, Província Mineral de Carajás

O depósito cupro-aurífero Visconde está localizado na Província Mineral de Carajás, a cerca de 15 km a leste do depósito congênere de classe mundial Sossego. Encontra-se em uma zona de cisalhamento de direção WNW-ESE, que marca o contato das rochas metavulcanossedimentares da Bacia Carajás com o embasamento. Nessa zona ocorrem outros depósitos hidrotermais cupro-auríferos com características similares (Alvo 118, Cristalino, Jatobá, Bacaba, Bacuri, Castanha), que têm sido enquadrados na classe IOCG (Iron Oxide Copper-Gold), embora muitas dúvidas ainda existam quanto a sua gênese, principalmente no que diz respeito à idade da mineralização e fontes dos fluidos, ligantes e metais. O depósito Visconde está hospedado em rochas arqueanas variavelmente cisalhadas e alteradas hidrotermalmente, as principais sendo metavulcânicas félsicas (2968 ± 15 Ma), o Granito Serra Dourada (2860 ± 22 Ma) e gabros/dioritos. Elas registram diversos tipos de alteração hidrotermal com forte controle estrutural, destacando-se as alterações sódica (albita + escapolita) e sódico-cálcica (albita + actinolita ± turmalina ± quartzo ± magnetita ± escapolita), mais precoces, que promoveram a substituição ubíqua de minerais primários das rochas e a disseminação de calcopirita, pirita, molibdenita e pentlandita. Dados isotópicos de oxigênio e hidrogênio de minerais representativos desses tipos de alteração mostram que os fluidos hidrotermais foram quentes (410 – 355°C) e ricos em ¹⁸O (δ¹⁸O_H2O= +4,2 a 9,4‰). Sobreveio a alteração potássica, caracterizada pela intensa biotitização das rochas, a qual ocorreu concomitantemente ao desenvolvimento de foliação milonítica, notavelmente desenhada pela orientação de palhetas de biotita, que precipitaram de fluidos com assinatura isotópica de oxigênio similar à dos estágios anteriores (δ¹⁸O_H2O entre +4,8 e +7,2‰, a 355°C). Microclina e alanita são outras fases características desse estágio, além da calcopirita precipitada nos planos da foliação. A temperaturas mais baixas (230 ± 11°C), fluidos empobrecidos em ¹⁸O (δ¹⁸O_H2O = -1,3 a +3,7‰) geraram associações de minerais cálcico-magnesianos (albita + epidoto + clorita ± calcita ± actinolita) que são contemporâneas à mineralização. Valores de δ¹⁸D_H2O e δO_H2O indicam que os fluidos hidrotermais foram inicialmente formados por águas metamórficas e formacionais, a que se misturou alguma água de fonte magmática. Nos estágios tardios, houve considerável influxo de águas superficiais. Diluição e queda da temperatura provocaram a precipitação de abundantes sulfetos (calcopirita ± bornita ± calcocita ± digenita), os quais se concentraram principalmente em brechas tectônicas - os principais corpos de minério - que chegam a conter até cerca de 60% de sulfetos. Veios constituídos por minerais sódico-cálcicos também apresentam comumente sulfetos. A associação de minerais de minério e ganga indica uma assinatura de Cu-Au- Fe-Ni-ETRL-B-P para a mineralização. Os valores de δ³⁴S (-1,2 a +3,4‰) de sulfetos sugerem enxofre de origem magmática (proveniente da exsolução de magmas ou da dissolução de sulfetos das rochas ígneas pré-existentes) e precipitação em condições levemente oxidantes. Datação do minério por lixiviação e dissolução total de Pb em calcopirita forneceu idades de 2736 ± 100 Ma e 2729 ± 150 Ma, que indicam ser a mineralização neoarqueana e, a despeito dos altos erros, permite descartar um evento mineralizador paleoproterozoico. A idade de 2746 ± 7 Ma (MSDW=4,9; evaporação de Pb em zircão), obtida em um corpo granítico não mineralizado (correlacionado à Suíte Planalto) que ocorre na área do depósito, foi interpretada como a idade mínima da mineralização. Assim, a formação do depósito Visconde teria relação com o evento transpressivo ocorrido entre 2,76 e 2,74 Ga, reponsável pela inversão da Bacia Carajás e pela geração de magmatismo granítico nos domínios Carajás e de Transição. Esse evento teria desencadeado reações de devolatilização em rochas do Supergrupo Itacaiúnas, ou mesmo, provocado a expulsão de fluidos conatos salinos aprisionados em seus intertícios. Esses fluidos teriam migrado pelas zonas de cisalhamento e reagido com as rochas (da bacia e do embasamento) pelas quais se movimentaram durante a fase dúctil. As concentrações subeconômicas do depósito Visconde devem ser resultado da ausência de grandes estruturas que teriam favorecido maior influxo de fluidos superficiais, tal como ocorreu na formação dos depósitos Sossego e Alvo 118.

(Table 3) Concentration of Au, Pd, and Pt in the interstitial waters of ODP Leg 125 samples

Palladium, platinum, and gold were analyzed for 20 interstitial water samples from Leg 125. No Pd or Pt was detected in fluids from serpentinite muds from Conical Seamount in the Mariana forearc, indicating that low-temperature seawater-peridotite interaction does not mobilize these elements into the serpentinizing fluids to levels above 0.10 parts per billion (ppb) in solution. However, Au may be mobilized in high pH solutions. In contrast, fluids from vitric-rich clays on the flanks of the Torishima Seamount in the Izu-Bonin forearc have Pd values of between 4.0 and 11.8 nmol/L, Pt values between 2.3 and 5.0 nmol/L and Au values between 126.9 and 1116.9 pmol/L. The precious metals are mobilized, and possibly adsorbed onto clay mineral surfaces, during diagenesis and burial of the volcanic-rich clays. Desorption during squeezing of the sediments may produce the enhanced precious metal concentrations in the analyzed fluids. The metals are mobilized in the fluids probably as neutral hydroxide, bisulfide, and ammonia complexes. Pt/Pd ratios are between 0.42 and 2.33, which is much lower than many of the potential sources for Pt and Pd but is consistent with the greater solubility of Pd compared with Pt in most natural low-temperature fluids.