Silicon and rice disease management

The element silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient for plant function. Nevertheless, Si is absorbed from soil in large amounts that are several fold higher than those of other essential macronutrients in certain plant species. Its beneficial effects have been reported in various situations, especially under biotic and abiotic stress conditions. The most significant effect of Si on plants, besides improving their fitness in nature and increasing agricultural productivity, is the restriction of parasitism. There has been a considerable amount of research showing the positive effect of Si in controlling diseases in important crops. Rice (Oryza sativa), in particular, is affected by the presence of Si, with diseases such as blast, brown spot and sheath blight becoming more severe on rice plants grown in Si-depleted soils. The hypothesis underlying the control of some diseases in both mono- and di-cots by Si has been confined to that of a mechanical barrier resulting from its polymerization in planta. However, some studies show that Si-mediated resistance against pathogens is associated with the accumulation of phenolics and phytoalexins as well as with the activation of some PR-genes. These findings strongly suggest that Si plays an active role in the resistance of some plants to diseases rather than forming a physical barrier that impedes penetration by fungal pathogens.

Dried powders of velvetbean and pine bark added to soil reduce Rhizoctonia solani-induced disease on soybean

Diseases induced by Rhizoctonia solani, like damping-off and root and stem rot on soybean (Glycine max), are a serious problem around the world. The addition of some organic material to soil is an alternative control for these diseases. In this study, benzaldehyde and dried powders of kudzu (Pueraria lobata), velvetbean or mucuna (Mucuna deeringiana), and pine bark (Pinus spp.) were used in an attempt to improve soybean plant growth and to reduce the disease R. solani (AG-4) causes on soybean. Benzaldehyde (0.1-0.4 mL/kg of soil) and velvetbean (25-100 g/kg) significantly (P < 0.05) reduced mycelial growth of R. solani in laboratory tests. In greenhouse experiments, the percentage of non-diseased plants was higher in treatments with pine bark and velvetbean (50-100 g/kg). In soil treated with kudzu (r²=0.91) or velvetbean (r²=0.94), increasing rates of these amendments tended to increase plant fresh mass. In microplot field conditions, soil amended with velvetbean (r²=0.85) and pine-bark (r²=0.61) significantly reduced disease on soybean. Numbers of Bacillus megaterium (r²=0.87) and Trichoderma hamatum (r²=0.92) and hydrolysis of fluorescein diacetate (r²=0.91) were higher in soil amended with increasing rates of velvetbean, indicating an increase in microbial activity. From this study it is concluded that dried powders of velvetbean and pine bark added to soil can reduce Rhizoctonia-induced disease on soybean.

Injuries caused by citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) exacerbate citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri) infection

After the introduction of citrus leafminer in São Paulo State, an increase in the number of new plants infected with citrus canker has been observed. The interaction between these two organisms is known, but there is no information about how the leafminer damage intensifies citrus canker incidence and severity. The objectives of this paper were to evaluate the effects of leafminer damage in citrus canker infection and its influence on the monocyclic components of the disease on Citrus limonia. Higher incidence of diseased plants, AUDPC (area under the disease progress curve), disease severity and shorter incubation periods were observed in plants inoculated after insect infestation. These factors explain the association found between the higher citrus canker intensity and the damage caused by the insect and show, albeit partially, the consequences of these changes in the spread of the pathogen under natural conditions of infection.

White mold intensity on common bean in response to plant density, irrigation frequency, grass mulching, Trichoderma spp., and fungicide

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of integrated managements on white mold control on common bean. Initially, in vitro testing was made to assess the antagonism of 11 Trichoderma isolates against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and to investigate fungicides (fluazinam and procymidone) inhibitory effects on those fungi. In two field experiments the following combinations were tested: irrigation frequencies (seven or 14 days), plant densities (six or 12 plants per meter), and three disease controls (untreated control, fungicide or Trichoderma spp.). In a third experiment plant densities were replaced by grass mulching treatments (with or without mulching). Fluazinam was applied at 45 and 55 days after emergence (DAE). The antagonists T. harzianum (experiments 1 and 3) and T. stromatica (experiment 2) were applied through sprinkler irrigation at 10 and 25 DAE, respectively. Most of the Trichoderma spp. were effective against the pathogen in vitro. Fluazinam was more toxic than procymidone to both the pathogen and the antagonist. Fungicide applications increased yield between 32 % and 41 %. In field one application of Trichoderma spp. did not reduce disease intensity and did not increase yield. The reduction from 12 to six plants per meter did not decrease yield, and disease severity diminished in one of the two experiments. It is concluded that of the strategies for white mold control just reduction of plant density and applications of fungicide were efficient.

Induction of plant defense responses by Ocimum gratissimum L. (Lamiaceae) leaf extracts

Aqueous extracts of the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum at 10, 25, 40 and 50% (w/v) concentrations induced the production of phytoalexins in soybean cotyledons and sorghum mesocotyls. The aqueous extracts also induced systemic resistance in cucumber to Colletotrichum lagenarium, reflected by reduction in disease incidence and an increase in chitinase production. Modes of action and the existence of possible elicitors of defense response in O. gratissimum leaf extracts are discussed.

Eucalyptus ESTs involved in mechanisms against plant pathogens and environmental stresses

Eucalypt plantation has high economical importance in Brazil; however, it has been attacked by various pathogens under different environmental stress conditions. Disease resistance and survival under unfavorable environmental conditions have revealed that the eucalypt has developed highly efficient defense systems. Here we show the results of the Eucalyptus ESTs Genome Project (FORESTs). Using the expressed sequence tags (ESTs) obtained by the Project, contigs of similar sequences from each cDNA library induced and not induced by stress agents were formed, and cDNA sequences similar to other already known molecules, such as plant-signaling molecules, phytoalexins, lignin biosynthesis pathways, PR-proteins and putative genes corresponding to enzymes involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species, were identified. We also present general considerations about the mechanisms of Eucalyptus defense against biotic and abiotic stresses. These data are of extreme importance for future eucalypt breeding programs aimed at developing plants with enhanced resistance against pathogens and environmental stresses.

Functional Genomic Approaches for Deciphering Plant-Virus Interactions

Plant-virus interactions are very complex in nature and lead to disease and symptom formation by causing various physiological, metabolic and developmental changes in the host plants. These interactions are mainly the outcomes of viral hijacking of host components to complete their infection cycles and of host defensive responses to restrict the viral infections. Viral genomes contain only a small number of genes often encoding for multifunctional proteins, and all are essential in establishing a viral infection. Thus, it is important to understand the specific roles of individual viral genes and their contribution to the viral life cycles. Among the most important viral proteins are the suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs). These proteins function to suppress host defenses mediated by RNA silencing and can also serve in other functions, e.g. in viral movement, transactivation of host genes, virus replication and protein processing. Thus these proteins are likely to have a significant impact on host physiology and metabolism. In the present study, I have examined the plant-virus interactions and the effects of three different VSRs on host physiology and gene expression levels by microarray analysis of transgenic plants that express these VSR genes. I also studied the gene expression changes related to the expression of the whole genome of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in transgenic tobacco plants. Expression of the VSR genes in the transgenic tobacco plants causes significant changes in the gene expression profiles. HC-Pro gene derived from the Potyvirus Y (PVY) causes alteration of 748 and 332 transcripts, AC2 gene derived from the African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) causes alteration of 1118 and 251transcripts, and P25 gene derived from the Potyvirus X (PVX) causes alterations of 1355 and 64 transcripts in leaves and flowers, respectively. All three VSRs cause similar up-regulation in defense, hormonally regulated and different stress-related genes and down-regulation in the photosynthesis and starch metabolism related genes. They also induce alterations that are specific to each viral VSR. The phenotype and transcriptome alterations of the HC-Pro expressing transgenic plants are similar to those observed in some Potyvirus-infected plants. The plants show increased protein degradation, which may be due to the HC-Pro cysteine endopeptidase and thioredoxin activities. The AC2-expressing transgenic plants show a similar phenotype and gene expression pattern as HC-Pro-expressing plants, but also alter pathways related to jasmonic acid, ethylene and retrograde signaling. In the P25 expressing transgenic plants, high numbers of genes (total of 1355) were up-regulated in the leaves, compared to a very low number of down-regulated genes (total of 5). Despite of strong induction of the transcripts, only mild growth reduction and no other distinct phenotype was observed in these plants. As an example of whole virus interactions with its host, I also studied gene expression changes caused by Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in tobacco host in three different conditions, i.e. in transgenic plants that are first resistant to the virus, and then become susceptible to it and in wild type plants naturally infected with this virus. The microarray analysis revealed up and down-regulation of 1362 and 1422 transcripts in the TMV resistant young transgenic plants, and up and down-regulation of a total of 1150 and 1200 transcripts, respectively, in the older plants, after the resistance break. Natural TMV infections in wild type plants caused up-regulation of 550 transcripts and down-regulation of 480 transcripts. 124 up-regulated and 29 down-regulated transcripts were commonly altered between young and old TMV transgenic plants, and only 6 up-regulated and none of the down-regulated transcripts were commonly altered in all three plants. During the resistant stage, the strong down-regulation in translation-related transcripts (total of 750 genes) was observed. Additionally, transcripts related to the hormones, protein degradation and defense pathways, cell division and stress were distinctly altered. All these alterations may contribute to the TMV resistance in the young transgenic plants, and the resistance may also be related to RNA silencing, despite of the low viral abundance and lack of viral siRNAs or TMV methylation activity in the plants.

The analysis of Metarhizium robertsii potential as endophytic plant root coloniser, plant growth enhancer and antagonist to bean root pathogen Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseolis.

The soil-inhabiting insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii also colonizes plant roots endophytically, thus showing potential as a plant symbiont. M robertsii is not randomly distributed in soils but preferentially associates with the plant rhizosphere when applied in agricultural settings. Root surface and endophytic colonization of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) by M robertsii were examined after inoculation with fungal conidia. Light and confocal microscopies were used to ascertain this rhizosphere association. Root lengths, root hair density and emergence of lateral roots were also measured. Initially, M robertsii conidia adhered to, germinated on, and colonized, roots. Furthermore, plant roots treated with Metarhizium grew faster and the density of plant root hairs increased when compared with control plants. The onset of plant root hair proliferation was initiated before germination of M robertsii on the root (within 1-2 days). Plants inoculated with M robertsii AMAD2 (plant adhesin gene) took significantly longer to show root hair proliferation than the wild type. Cell free extracts of M robertsii did not stimulate root hair proliferation. Longer term (60 days) associations showed that M robertsii endophytically colonized individual cortical cells within bean roots. Metarhizium appeared as an amorphous mycelial aggregate within root cortical cells as well as between the intercellular spaces with no apparent damage to the plant. These results suggested that not only is M robertsii rhizosphere competent but displays a beneficial endophytic association with plant roots that results in the proliferation of root hairs. The biocontrol of bean (Phaseolis vulgaris) root rot fungus Fusarium solani f. sp. phaseolis by Metarhizium robertsii was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Dual cultures on Petri dishes showed antagonism of M robertsii against F. solani. A relative inhibition of ca. 60% of F. solani growth was observed in these assays. Cell free culture filtrates of M robertsii inhibited the germination of F. solani conidia by 83% and the inhibitory metabolite was heat stable. Beans plants colonized by M robertsii then exposed to F. solani showed healthier plant profiles and lower disease indices compared to plants not colonized by M robertsii. These results suggested that the insect pathogenic/endophytic fungus M robertsii could also be utilized as a biocontrol agent against certain plant pathogens occurring in the rhizosphere.

Novel glutathione disulfide transferase function of CC-glutaredoxins involved in disease resistance and flower development

Glutaredoxins are oxidoreductases capable of reducing protein disulfide bridges and glutathione mixed disulfides through the process of deglutathionylation and glutathionylation. Lately, redox-mediated modifications of functional cysteine residues of TGA1 and TGA8 transcription factors have been postulated. Namely, GRX480 and ROXY1 glutaredoxins have been previously shown to interact with TGA proteins and have been suggested to regulate redox state of these proteins. TGA1, together with TGA2, is involved in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) establishment in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana through PR1 (Pathogenesis related 1) gene activation. They both form an enhanceosome complex with the NPR1 protein (non-expressor of pathogenesis related gene 1) which leads to PR1 transcription. Although TGA1 is capable of activating PR1 transcription, the ability of the TGA1 NPR1 enhanceosome complex to assembly is based on the redox status of TGA1. We identified GRX480 as a glutathionylating enzyme that catalyzes the TGA1 glutathione disulfide transferase reaction with a Km of around 20μM GSSG (oxidized glutathione). Out of four cysteine residues found within TGA1, C172 and C266 were found to be glutathionylated by this enzyme. We also confirmed TGA1 glutathionylation in vivo and showed that this modification takes place while TGA1 is associated with the PR1 promoter enzymatically via GRX480. Furthermore, we show that glutathionylation via GRX480 abolishes TGA1's interaction with NPR1 and consequently prevents the TGA1-NPR1 transcription activation of PR1. When glutathionylated, TGA1 is recruited to the PR1 promoter and acts as a repressor. Therefore, glutathionylation is a mechanism that prevents TGA1 NPR1 interaction, allowing TGA1 to function as a repressor of PR1 transcription. Surprisingly, GRX480 was not able to deglutathionylate proteins demonstrating the irreversible nature of the reaction. Moreover, we demonstrate that other members of CC-class glutaredoxins, namely ROXY1 and ROXY2, can also catalyze protein glutathionylation. The TGA8 protein was previously shown to interact with NPR1 analogs, BOP1 and BOP2 proteins. However, unlike the case of TGA1 NPR1 interaction, here we demonstrate that TGA8-BOP1 interaction is not redox regulated and that TGA8 glutathionylation by ROXY1 and ROXY2 enzymes does not abolish this interaction in vitro. However, TGA8 glutathionylation results in TGA8 oligomer disassembly into smaller complexes and monomers. Our results suggest that CC-Grxs are unable to reduce mixed disulfides, instead they efficiently catalyze the opposite reaction which distinguishes them from traditional glutaredoxins. Therefore, they should not be classified as glutaredoxins but as protein glutathione disulfide transferases.

Molecular interactions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi with mycotoxin-producing fungi and their role in plant defense responses

Les trichothécènes de Fusarium appartiennent au groupe des sesquiterpènes qui sont des inhibiteurs la synthèse des protéines des eucaryotes. Les trichothécènes causent d’une part de sérieux problèmes de santé aux humains et aux animaux qui ont consommé des aliments infectés par le champignon et de l’autre part, elles sont des facteurs importants de la virulence chez plantes. Dans cette étude, nous avons isolé et caractérisé seize isolats de Fusarium de la pomme de terre infectée naturellement dans un champs. Les tests de pathogénicité ont été réalisés pour évaluer la virulence des isolats sur la pomme de terre ainsi que leur capacité à produire des trichothécènes. Nous avons choisi F. sambucinum souche T5 comme un modèle pour cette étude parce qu’il était le plus agressif sur la pomme de terre en serre en induisant un flétrissement rapide, un jaunissement suivi de la mort des plantes. Cette souche produit le 4,15-diacétoxyscirpénol (4,15-DAS) lorsqu’elle est cultivée en milieu liquide. Nous avons amplifié et caractérisé cinq gènes de biosynthèse trichothécènes (TRI5, TRI4, TRI3, TRI11, et TRI101) impliqués dans la production du 4,15-DAS. La comparaison des séquences avec les bases de données a montré 98% et 97% d'identité de séquence avec les gènes de la biosynthèse des trichothécènes chez F. sporotrichioides et Gibberella zeae, respectivement. Nous avons confrenté F. sambucinum avec le champignon mycorhizien à arbuscule Glomus irregulare en culture in vitro. Les racines de carotte et F. sambucinum seul, ont été utilisés comme témoins. Nous avons observé que la croissance de F. sambucinum a été significativement réduite avec la présence de G. irregulare par rapport aux témoins. Nous avons remarqué que l'inhibition de la croissance F. sambucinum a été associée avec des changements morphologiques, qui ont été observés lorsque les hyphes de G. irregulare ont atteint le mycélium de F. sambucinum. Ceci suggère que G. irregulare pourrait produire des composés qui inhibent la croissance de F. sambucinum. Nous avons étudié les patrons d’expression des gènes de biosynthèse de trichothécènes de F. sambucinum en présence ou non de G. irregulare, en utilisant le PCR en temps-réel. Nous avons observé que TRI5 et TRI6 étaient sur-exprimés, tandis que TRI4, TRI13 et TRI101 étaient en sous-exprimés en présence de G. irregulare. Des analyses par chromatographie en phase-gazeuse (GC-MS) montrent clairement que la présence de G. irregulare réduit significativement la production des trichothécènes par F. sambucinum. Le dosage du 4,15-DAS a été réduit à 39 μg/ml milieu GYEP par G. irregulare, comparativement à 144 μg/ml milieu GYEP quand F. sambucinum est cultivé sans G. irregulare. Nous avons testé la capacité de G. irregulare à induire la défense des plants de pomme de terre contre l'infection de F. sambucinum. Des essais en chambre de croissance montrent que G. irregulare réduit significativement l’incidence de la maladie causée par F. sambucinum. Nous avons aussi observé que G. irregulare augmente la biomasse des racines, des feuilles et des tubercules. En utilisant le PCR en temps-réel, nous avons étudié les niveaux d’expression des gènes impliqué dans la défense des plants de pommes de terre tels que : chitinase class II (ChtA3), 1,3-β-glucanase (Glub), peroxidase (CEVI16), osmotin-like protéin (OSM-8e) et pathogenèses-related protein (PR-1). Nous avons observé que G. irregulare a induit une sur-expression de tous ces gènes dans les racines après 72 heures de l'infection avec F. sambucinum. Nous avons également trové que la baisse provoquée par F. sambucinum des gènes Glub et CEVI16 dans les feuilles pourrait etre bloquée par le traitement AMF. Ceci montre que l’inoculation avec G. irregulare constitut un bio-inducteur systémique même dans les parties non infectées par F. sambucinum. En conclusion, cette étude apporte de nouvelles connaissances importantes sur les interactions entre les plants et les microbes, d’une part sur les effets directs des champignons mycorhiziens sur l’inhibition de la croissance et la diminution de la production des mycotoxines chez Fusarium et d’autre part, l’atténuation de la sévérité de la maladie dans des plantes par stimulation leur défense. Les données présentées ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives de bio-contrôle contre les pathogènes mycotoxinogènes des plantes.

Influence of plant species and richness on pollutant removal in treatment wetlands

Les marais filtrants artificiels sont des écosystèmes recréés par l’homme dans le but d’optimiser l’épuration des eaux usées. Lors de la sélection d’espèces végétales pour la mise en place de ces marais filtrants, l’utilisation d’une polyculture ainsi que d’espèces indigènes non invasives est de plus en plus recommandée. Néanmoins, la plupart des marais filtrants existants sont des monocultures utilisant des plantes envahissantes, probablement à cause du manque d’évidences scientifiques sur les avantages de la diversité végétale et de la performance des espèces locales. Ainsi, les questions de recherche autour desquelles s’oriente ma thèse sont: Les polycultures présentent-elles un potentiel épuratoire aussi ou plus grand que les monocultures, et une espèce indigène est-elle aussi efficace et performante qu’une espèce exotique envahissante dans des marais filtrants ? Trois expériences ont été conduites afin de répondre à ces questions. J’ai d’abord testé l’influence de la richesse végétale sur l’élimination des polluants en deux dispositifs expérimentaux: 1) comparant deux espèces de plantes émergentes en monoculture ou combinées séquentiellement, et 2) évaluant la performance de quatre espèces flottantes plantées en monoculture par rapport à des associations de deux (avec toutes les combinaisons possibles) et de quatre espèces. Une troisième expérience a été réalisée afin de comparer l’efficacité épuratoire de l’haplotype européen envahissant du roseau commun (Phragmites australis) et de la sous-espèce locale non-invasive (P. australis subsp. americanus). La composition en espèces végétales a produit un effet notable sur la performance des marais filtrants. La comparaison des performances en mono- et en polyculture n’a pas permis de démontrer clairement les avantages de la diversité végétale pour l’élimination des polluants dans les marais filtrants. Toutefois, les marais filtrants plantés avec une combinaison d’espèces étaient aussi efficaces que les monocultures des espèces les plus performantes. La comparaison entre les deux sous-espèces de P. australis indiquent que la sous-espèce indigène pourrait remplacer le roseau exotique envahissant, évitant ainsi les potentiels risques environnementaux sans toutefois compromettre l’efficacité du traitement. Les résultats prometteurs de la sous-espèce indigène de P. australis doivent encore être testés dans des expériences à grande échelle avant d’utiliser largement cette espèce dans les marais filtrants. Nos résultats suggèrent que, dans des conditions où la performance des macrophytes disponibles est inconnue ou ne peut être déterminée, l’utilisation d’une combinaison d’espèces présente les meilleures chances d’accomplir le plus haut niveau possible d’élimination de polluants. De plus, même si la diversité végétale ne présente pas un avantage mesurable en termes d’efficacité épuratoire, celle-ci améliore la résilience des marais filtrants et leur résistance aux stress et aux maladies.

Pathogens occuring in the winter pea-maize-winter wheat rotation, their host specificity and the potential of compost in suppressing foot and root disease of peas

The overall aim of the work presented was to evaluate soil health management with a specific focus on soil borne diseases of peas. For that purpose field experiments were carried out from 2009 until 2013 to assess crop performance and pathogen occurrence in the rotation winter pea-maize-winter wheat and if the application of composts can improve system performance. The winter peas were left untreated or inoculated with Phoma medicaginis, in the presence or absence of yard waste compost at rate of 5 t dry matter ha-1. A second application of compost was made to the winter wheat. Fusarium ssp. were isolated and identified from the roots of all three crops and the Ascochyta complex pathogens on peas. Bioassays were conducted under controlled conditions to assess susceptibility of two peas to Fusarium avenaceum, F. solani, P. medicaginis and Didymella pinodes and of nine plant species to F. avenaceum. Also, effects of compost applications and temperature on pea diseases were assessed. Application of composts overall stabilized crop performance but it did not lead to significant yield increases nor did it affect pathogen composition and occurrence. Phoma medicaginis was dominating the pathogen complex on peas. F. graminearum, F. culmorum, F. proliferatum, Microdochium nivale, F. crookwellense, F. sambucinum, F. oxysporum, F. avenaceum and F. equiseti were frequently isolated species from maize and winter wheat with no obvious influence of the pre-crop on the Fusarium species composition. The spring pea Santana was considerably more susceptible to the pathogens tested than the winter pea EFB33 in both sterile sand and non-sterilized field soil. F. avenaceum was the most aggressive pathogen, followed by P. medicaginis, D. pinodes, and F. solani. Aggressiveness of all pathogens was greatly reduced in non-sterile field soil. F. avenaceum caused severe symptoms on roots of all nine plant species tested. Especially susceptible were Trifolium repens, T. subterraneum, Brassica juncea and Sinapis alba in addition to peas. Reduction of growing temperatures from 19/16°C day/night to 16/12°C and 13/10°C did not affect the efficacy of compost. It reduced plant growth and slightly increased disease on EFB33 whereas the highest disease severity on Santana was observed at the highest temperature, 19/16°C. Application of 20% v/v of compost reduced disease on peas due to all four pathogens depending on pea variety, pathogen and growing media used. Suppression was also achieved with lower application rate of 3.5% v/v. Tests with γ sterilized compost suggest that the suppression of disease caused by Fusarium spp. is biological in origin, whereas chemical and physical properties of compost are playing an additional role in the suppression of disease caused by D. pinodes and P. medicaginis.

The role of uncomposted materials, composts, manures, and compost extracts in reducing pest and disease incidence and severity in sustainable temperate agricultural and horticultural crop production - A review

This review evaluates evidence of the impact of uncomposted plant residues, composts, manures, and liquid preparations made from composts (compost extracts and teas) on pest and disease incidence and severity in agricultural and horticultural crop production. Most reports on pest control using such organic amendments relate to tropical or and climates. The majority of recent work on the use of organic amendments for prevention and control of diseases relates to container-produced plants, particularly ornamentals. However, there is growing interest in the potential for using composts to prevent and control diseases in temperate agricultural and horticultural field crops and information concerning their use and effectiveness is slowly increasing. The impact of uncomposted plant residues, composts, manures, and compost extracts/teas on pests and diseases is discussed in relation to sustainable temperate field and protected cropping systems. The factors affecting efficacy or such organic amendments in preventing and controlling pests and disease are examined and the mechanisms through which control is achieved are described.

The occurrence and economic impact of plasmodiophora brassicae and clubroot disease

The significance of Plasmodiophora brassicae Woronin and clubroot disease which it incites in members of the family Brassicaceae is reviewed as the focus for this special edition of the Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. This is a monographic treatment of recent research into the pathogen and disease; previous similar treatments are now well over half a century old. Vernacular nomenclature of the disease indicates that it had a well-established importance in agriculture and horticulture from at least the Middle Ages onward in Europe and probably earlier. Subsequently, the pathogen probably spread worldwide as a result of transfer on and in fodder taken by colonists as livestock feed. It is a moot point, however, whether there was much earlier spread by P. brassicae into China and subsequently Japan as Brassica rapa (Chinese cabbage and many variants) colonized those lands in archaeological time. Symptoms, worldwide distribution, and economic impact are briefly described here to provide a basis for understanding subsequent papers. Clubroot disease devastates both infected field and protected vegetable and agricultural Brassica crops. Particular importance is placed on recent reports of crop losses in tropical countries, albeit where the crops are grown in cooler altitudes, and in the Canadian prairie land canola crops. The latter is of enormous importance because this crop is the single most important and essential source of vegetable oils used in human foodstuffs and in industrial lubricants where mineral oils are inappropriate.

Spatio-temporal analysis of an invasive plant pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) in England and Wales

Phytophthora ramorum is a damaging invasive plant pathogen and was first discovered in the UK in 2002. Spatial point analyses were applied to the occurrence of this disease in England and Wales during the period of 2003-2006 in order to assess its spatio-temporal spread. Out of the 4301 garden centres and nurseries (GCN) surveyed, there were 164, 105, 123 and 41 sites with P. ramorum in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. Spatial analysis of the observed point patterns of GCN outbreaks suggested that these sites were significantly clumped within a radius of ca 60 km in 2003, but not in later years. Further analyses were conducted to determine the relationship of GCN outbreak sites over two consecutive years and thus to infer possible disease spread over time. This analysis suggested that disease spread among GCN sites was most likely to have occurred within a distance of 60 km for 2003-2004, but not for the later years. There were 35, 63, 81 and 58 sites with P. ramorum in the semi-natural environment (SNE). Analyses were carried out to assess whether infected GCN sites could act as an inoculum source of infected SNE plants or vice versa. In all years, there was a significant spatial closeness among GCN and SNE outbreak sites within a distance of 1 km. But a significant relationship over a longer distance (within 60 km) was only observed between cases in 2003 and 2004. These analyses suggest that statutory actions taken so far appear to have reduced the extent of long-distance spread of P. ramorum among garden centres and nurseries, but not the disease spread at a shorter distance between GCN and SNE sites.