(Table 2) Silicon isotope data for sponge spicules from ODP Hole 113-689B

The silicon isotope composition (d30Si) of biogenic opal provides a view of the silica cycle at times in the past. Reconstructions require the knowledge of silicon isotope fractionation during opal biomineralization. The d30Si of specimens of hexactinellid sponges and demosponges growing in the modern ocean ranged from -1.2 per mil to -3.7 per mil (n = 6), corresponding to the production of opal that has a d30Si value 3.8 per mil +/- 0.8 per mil more negative than seawater silicic acid and a fractionation factor (a) of 0.9964. This is three times the fractionation observed during opal formation by marine diatoms and terrestrial plants and is the largest fractionation of silicon isotopes observed for any natural process on Earth. The d30Si values of sponge spicules across the Eocene-Oligocene boundary at Ocean Drilling Program Site 689 on Maud Rise range from -1.1 per mil to -3.0 per mil, overlapping the range observed for sponges growing in modern seawater.

Sponge bioerosion accelerated by ocean acidification across species and latitudes?

In many marine biogeographic realms, bioeroding sponges dominate the internal bioerosion of calcareous substrates such as mollusc beds and coral reef framework. They biochemically dissolve part of the carbonate and liberate so-called sponge chips, a process that is expected to be facilitated and accelerated in a more acidic environment inherent to the present global change. The bioerosion capacity of the demosponge Cliona celata Grant, 1826 in subfossil oyster shells was assessed via alkalinity anomaly technique based on 4 days of experimental exposure to three different levels of carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2) at ambient temperature in the cold-temperate waters of Helgoland Island, North Sea. The rate of chemical bioerosion at present-day pCO2 was quantified with 0.08-0.1 kg/m**2/year. Chemical bioerosion was positively correlated with increasing pCO2, with rates more than doubling at carbon dioxide levels predicted for the end of the twenty-first century, clearly confirming that C. celata bioerosion can be expected to be enhanced with progressing ocean acidification (OA). Together with previously published experimental evidence, the present results suggest that OA accelerates sponge bioerosion (1) across latitudes and biogeographic areas, (2) independent of sponge growth form, and (3) for species with or without photosymbionts alike. A general increase in sponge bioerosion with advancing OA can be expected to have a significant impact on global carbonate (re)cycling and may result in widespread negative effects, e.g. on the stability of wild and farmed shellfish populations, as well as calcareous framework builders in tropical and cold-water coral reef ecosystems.

Mineralogy of some Australian desert samples (Table 3)

The relative amounts of chlorite, montmorillonite, kaolinite and illite in the less than 2 micron size fraction of pelagic sediments are related to the sources and transport paths of solid phases from the continents to the oceans and to injections of volcanic materials to the marine environment. Three modes of entry of solid phases from the lands to the seas are considered: by glaciers, by rivers and by atmospheric winds. The compositions of the clay size fraction are also related to rates of accumulation of the non-biogenous phases.

Rates of spread of marine pathogens

Epidemics of marine pathogens can spread at extremely rapid rates. For example, herpes virus spread through pilchard populations in Australia at a rate in excess of 10 000 km year(-1), and morbillivirus infections in seals and dolphins have spread at more than 3000 km year(-1). In terrestrial environments, only the epidemics of myxomatosis and calicivirus in Australian rabbits and West Nile Virus in birds in North America have rates of spread in excess of 1000 km year(-1). The rapid rates of spread of these epidemics has been attributed to flying insect vectors, but flying vectors have not been proposed for any marine pathogen. The most likely explanation for the relatively rapid spread of marine pathogens is the lack of barriers to dispersal in some parts of the ocean, and the potential for long-term survival of pathogens outside the host. These findings caution that pathogens may pose a particularly severe problem in the ocean. There is a need to develop epidemic models capable of generating these high rates of spread and obtain more estimates of disease spread rate.

The cell wall galactans from Australian representatives of the genus Meristotheca (solieriaceae, rhodophyta)

The Solieriaceae, has the largest number of genera (16-18) of any family in the carrageenophyte order Gigartinales. One of these genera, Meristotheca, consists of three or four species of foliose, erect to prostrate plants sporadically recorded from the tropics of both hemispheres. The hot-water-soluble polysaccharides from Australian representatives of the type species, M. papulosa, and M. procumbens from Lord Howe Island have been characterized by compositional assays, linkage analysis, and Fourier transform infrared and C-13-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The results show that polysaccharides from both species are similar, being predominantly composed of 4-linked 3,6-anhydro-alpha-D-galactopyranose 2-sulphate alternating with 3-linked beta-D-galactopyranose 4-sulphate, as is typical of iota-carrageenan. Small proportions of the 3-linked units occur as the pyruvated residue 4,6-O-(1-carboxyethylidene)-beta-D-galactopyranose, and other minor variations from idealized iota-carrageenan were also detected. The polysaccharides from representatives of Meristotheca are comparable to those of other solieriacean algae analysed to date, but the minor structural variations suggest a closer chemotaxonomic affinity with noneucheumoid genera of the Solieriaceae, such as Sarconema, Solieria, and Tikvahiella, than to the eucheumoid genera Eucheuma, Kappaphycus and Betaphycus (tribe Eucheumatoideae) from which most kappa- and iota-carrageenans are commercially extracted.

Levels and probable origin of predatory scarring on humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in east Australian waters

To investigate the incidence of non-lethal predation in Southern Hemisphere whales, more than 3400 fluke-identification photographs from resight histories of 1436 east Australian humpback whales were examined for evidence of predatory markings. Photographs were obtained from 1984 to 1996 at various locations along the east coast of Australia, from northern Queensland to southern New South Wales. Photographs were classified in terms of the level and type of scarring. The possible predator and whether the markings appeared fresh were also noted. In all, 17% of identified east Australian humpbacks possessed some form of predatory scarring, 57% of which was minor and 43% major. Almost all predatory scarring was consistent with that inflicted by killer whales. Only three whales demonstrated an increase in the level of predatory scarring after their first sightings. Two incidents of fresh scarring were recorded, and one fatal killer whale attack on a humpback whale calf was directly observed. The overall level of predatory scarring found in this study is comparable to those found in studies for Northern Hemisphere humpback whales. The low incidence of adult whales showing their first sign of predatory scarring after their initial sighting, and the small number possessing recent scarring, support the idea that east Australian humpback whales experience most predatory attacks early in life.

Marine isocyanides and related natural products structure, biosynthesis and ecology

This review highlights structural and biosynthetic work on a group of nitrogen-functionalised terpenes that are almost exclusively found in marine invertebrates and the animals that feed on them. The chemical functionality reviewed includes isocyanides, isothiocyanates, formamides, thiocyanates, isocyanates, and dichloroimines. The literature through mid 2003 is reviewed and there are 143 citations.

Tetra- and tribromopbenoxyanisoles in Marine Samples from Oceania

Some methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-BDEs) are known halogenated natural products (HNPs) and are frequently detected in higher organisms of the marine environment. In this study we demonstrate that a prominent MeO-BDE, previously detected in marine mammals from Australia, is identical to 3,5-dibromo-2-(2',4'-dibromo)phenoxyanisole(BC-3,6-MeO-BDE47). Up to 1.9mg/ kg of 6-MeO-BDE 47 was present in cetaceans from Australia, 0.2-0.3 mg/kg in two crocodile eggs from Australia, but concentrations of 1 or 2 orders of magnitude lower were found in shark liver oil from New Zealand and in marine mammals from Africa and the Antarctic. Concentrations of 6-MeO-BDE47 in samples from Australia were in the same range as anthropogenic pollutants such as PCB 153 and p,p'-DDE. Along with 6-MeO-BDE 47 and the known HNP 4,6-dibromo-2-(2',4'-dibromo)phenoxyanisole (BC-2,2'-MeO-BDE 68), several tribromophenoxyanisoles (MeO-triBDE) were present in tissue of Australian cetaceans. To determine their structure, abiotic debromination experiments were performed using 6-MeO-BDE 47 and 2'-MeO-BDE 68 and superreduced di cyanocobalamine. These experiments resulted in formation of eight MeO-triBDEs, all of which were detected in the cetacean samples. Five of these eight MeO-triBDEs could be identified based on two standard compounds as well as gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric features. It was also shown that the first eluting isomer (compound 1), 6-MeO-BDE 17 (compound 2), and 2-MeO-BDE 39 (compound 5) were the most prominent MeO-triBDEs in the Australian cetacean samples. The concentrations of the MeO-triBDEs in two cetacean samples were 0.20 and 0.36 mg/kg, respectively. Although the reductive debromination with dicyanocobalamine resulted in a different congener pattern than was found in the marine mammals, it could not be excluded that the tribromo congeners of 6-MeO-BDE 47 and 2'-MeO-BDE 68 in the samples were metabolites of the latter.

Sanguinicola maritimus n. sp (Digenea : Sanguinicolidae) from Labridae (Teleostei : Perciformes) of southern Australian waters

A new species of Sanguinicola Plehn, 1905 is described from the marine teleosts Notolabrus parilus (Richardson) and N. tetricus (Richardson) (Perciformes: Labridae) from Western Australian and Tasmanian waters. This host distribution is strikingly anomalous; however, the present material fulfils the morphological criteria of Sanguinicola. S. maritimus n. sp. differs from previously described species in having the combination of a body 1,432-1,701 mu m long, the oesophagus 18.3-21.7% of the body length, the testis occupying 42.8-52.3% of the body length, an oviducal seminal receptacle and Mehlis' gland present, ovoid eggs, and vitelline follicles that extend anteriorly past the nerve commissure, laterally past the lateral nerve chords and posteriorly to the anterior margin of the cirrus-sac. S. maritimus also lacks a protrusible anterior proboscis. It also differs in the combination of host and geographical location, being the first Sanguinicola species from a marine teleost and the first from Australian waters.

Changes in morphology and physiology of an East Mediterranean sponge in different habitats

The sponge Tetilla sp. (Tetractinomorpha: Tetillidae) is a common species in the eastern Mediterranean. This sponge inhabits four different habitat types differing in wave impact and irradiance levels. Two of these habitats (a shallow cave and deep water) are characterized by relatively calm water, whereas the other two (shallow exposed site and tide pools) are in turbulent water with high energy flow. The present study examined the influence of physical (depth, illumination and water motion) and biotic factors on morphology, skeletal plasticity and reproductive traits among the four spatially separated populations. Sponges from tidal pools had significantly larger body volume than sponges from deep water and from shallow caves (ANOVA: tidal-deep P< 0.0001; tidal-shallow caves P< 0.05). Sponges from exposed habitats were significantly larger than deep-water sponges (ANOVA: P=0.01). In addition, individuals from tide pools and from the exposed habitat had a significantly higher proportion of structural silica than sponges from the calmer deep water and from the cave sites. Oxea spicules in sponges from the calm habitats were significantly shorter than in those from the tidal pools and the exposed habitats. The percentage of spicules out of a sponge's dry weight in individuals transplanted from deep (calm) to shallow (turbulent) water significantly increased by 21.9&PLUSMN; 12.9%. The new spicule percentage did not differ significantly from that of sponges originally from shallow water. Oocyte diameter differed significantly between habitats. The maximal size of mature eggs was found in deep-water sponges in June (97&PLUSMN; 5 μ m). In the shallow habitats, a smaller maximal oocyte diameter was found in the cave, in May (56.5&PLUSMN; 3 μ m). Furthermore, oocyte density in shallow-water sponges was highest in May and decreased in June (with 88.2&PLUSMN; 9 and 19.3&PLUSMN; 9 oocytes mm(-2), respectively). At the same time (June), oocyte density of deep-water sponges had just reached its maximum (155&PLUSMN; 33.7 oocytes mm(-2)). The difference in oocyte size and density between deep- and shallow-water individuals indicates an earlier gamete release in the shallow sponge population. The results suggest that plasticity in skeletal design of this sponge indicates a trade off between spicule production and investment in reproduction.

Aspergillazines A-E: novel heterocyclic dipeptides from an Australian strain of Aspergillus unilateralis

Biological and chemical pro ling of an Australian strain of the fungus Aspergillus unilateralis (MST-F8675), isolated from a soil sample collected near Mount Isa, Queensland, revealed a complex array of metabolites displaying broad chemotherapeutic properties. Noteworthy among these metabolites were a unique series of highly modified dipeptides aspergillazines A-E, incorporating a selection of unprecedented and yet biosynthetically related heterocyclic systems. Co-occurring with the aspergillazines was the recently described marine-derived fungal metabolite trichodermamide A (cf. penicillazine), whereas re-fermentation of A. unilateralis in NaCl (1%) enriched media resulted in co-production of the only other known example of this structure class, the marine-derived fungal metabolite trichodermamide B. Further investigation of A. unilateralis returned the known terrestrial fungal metabolite viridicatumtoxin as the cytotoxic and antibacterial principle, together with E-2-decenedioic acid, ferulic acid, (7E,7'E)-5,5'-diferulic acid and (7E,7'E)-8,5'-diferulic acid. The aromatic diacids have previously been reported from the chemical and enzymatic (esterase) treatment of plant cell wall material, with their isolation from A. unilateralis being their first apparent reported occurrence as natural products. Structures for all metabolites were determined by detailed spectroscopic analysis and, where appropriate, comparison to literature data and/or authentic samples.

Clinical effects of stings by sponges of the genus Tedania and a review of sponge stings worldwide

Contact with sponges (Phylum Porifera) usually results in minimal effects or abrasions, except for species that produce crinitoxins and can cause irritation and dermatitis. There are few reports of sponge stings, mainly in divers or collectors. We report a group of sponge stings from handling flame red/orange sponges on the beach, confirmed to be Tedania anhelans in five cases. All seven patients suffered immediate effects ranging from mild to severe pain, and local inflammation. A 38-year-old female and three children had delayed skin involvement including itchiness, pain, swelling and redness. Blistering and desquamation occurred in the female adult and limited desquamation in one child. Similar delayed effects have been reported in Tedania spp. stings previously. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.