Female sterility associated with increased clonal propagation suggests a unique combination of androdioecy and asexual reproduction in populations of Cardamine amara (Brassicaceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The coexistence of hermaphrodites and female-sterile individuals, or androdioecy, has been documented in only a handful of plants and animals. This study reports its existence in the plant species Cardamine amara (Brassicaceae), in which female-sterile individuals have shorter pistils than seed-producing hermaphrodites. METHODS: Morphological analysis, in situ manual pollination, microsatellite genotyping and differential gene expression analysis using Arabidopsis microarrays were used to delimit variation between female-sterile individuals and hermaphrodites. KEY RESULTS: Female sterility in C. amara appears to be caused by disrupted ovule development. It was associated with a 2.4- to 2.9-fold increase in clonal propagation. This made the pollen number of female-sterile genets more than double that of hermaphrodite genets, which fulfils a condition of co-existence predicted by simple androdioecy theories. When female-sterile individuals were observed in wild androdioecious populations, their ramet frequencies ranged from 5 to 54 %; however, their genet frequencies ranged from 11 to 29 %, which is consistent with the theoretically predicted upper limit of 50 %. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that a combination of sexual reproduction and increased asexual proliferation by female-sterile individuals probably explains the invasion and maintenance of female sterility in otherwise hermaphroditic populations. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the coexistence of female sterility and hermaphrodites in the Brassicaceae.

Les odeurs répugnantes des démons : une preuve de leur présence corporelle au sabbat ?

The present article examines the meaning and function of olfactory remnants, often repugnant, linked to demons in the context of late medieval witchcraft and demonology. This reflection is developed within the framework of a «make believe» logic sustained by the doctrinal, theological, narrative and judiciary constructions of the witches' Sabbath. Incorporated within the order of sensory perception, references to the fetid smell of demons - who are by nature devoid of odour because they are pure spirits - constitute further proofs bearing witness to demonic presence, and thus testifying to the ignominy of the crime of witchcraft and to the guiltiness of the accused. According to those who attacked demon worshippers, the devil truly revealed himself physically; human beings were able to touch, hear, see and smell him. Sensory faculties were therefore perceived as being instrumental in corroborating the existence and reality of the Sabbath and the presence of the devil in bodily form. These considerations bring us to examine the olfactory fields associated with the devil's odour: odour of corpses, hell, sin, deviance, but also of defilement, impurity, corruption and excrements. These fetid odours are embedded in a logic of moral, spiritual and religious inversion of positive odours, such as the «sweet fragrance» of the saints, the «pure odour» of Christ or the «soft perfume» of virtue.