Remote law-making? American drone strikes and the development of jus ad bellum

There is growing concern amongst international lawyers that the United States’ use of unmanned armed vehicles to conduct lethal targeting operations against non-state actors is setting a dangerous precedent for the future and might lead to an erosion of important rules under international law. Taking seriously these concerns, this article examines in more detail the potential precedent created by the US through its lethal drone strikes and the provided justifications, for the purpose of the development of jus ad bellum. In identifying the claims made by the US under different theories of customary international law as qualified practice or expressions of opinio juris that can lead to an alteration of the law should they be accepted by the international community, this article takes a first step towards a more extensive debate on the potential effects of the US drone strikes on the development of international law.

Youth expectations and rural development

Includes bibliography

Assessment of the damage caused by flood rains and landslides in association with hurricane Michelle, october 2001: implications for economic, social and environmental development

Preface This study was prepared for the Government of Jamaica following the significant physical damage and economic losses that the country sustained as a result of flood rains associated with the development of Hurricane Michelle. The Planning Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ) submitted a request for assistance in undertaking a social, environmental and economic impact assessment to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) on 14 November 2001. ECLAC responded with haste and modified its work plan to accommodate the request. A request for training in the use of the ECLAC Methodology to be delivered to personnel in Jamaica was deferred until the first quarter of 2002, as it was impossible to mount such an initiative at such short notice. This appraisal considers the consequences of the three instances of heavy rainfall that brought on the severe flooding and loss of property and livelihoods. The study was prepared by three members of the ECLAC Natural Disaster Damage Assessment Team over a period of one week in order to comply with the request that it be presented to the Prime Minister on 3 December 2001. The team has endeavoured to complete a workload that would take two weeks with a team of 15 members working assiduously with data already prepared in preliminary form by the national emergency stakeholders. There is need for training in disaster assessment as evidenced by the data collected by the Jamaican officials engaged in the exercise. Their efforts in the future will be more focused and productive after they have received training in the use of the ECLAC Methodology. This study undertakes a sectoral analysis leading to an overall assessment of the damage. It appraises the macroeconomic and social effects and proposes some guidelines for action including mitigating actions subsequent to the devastation caused by the weather system. The team is grateful for the efforts of the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM), the associated government ministries and agencies, the Statistical Institute of Jamaica (STATIN), the Planning Institute of Jamaica and the Inter American Development Bank (IDB) for assistance rendered to the team. Indeed, it is the recommendation of the team that STATIN is poised to play a pivotal role in any disaster damage assessment and should be taken on board in that regard. The direct and indirect damages have been assessed in accordance with the methodology developed by ECLAC (1). The results presented are based on the mission's estimates. The study incorporates the information made available to the team and evidence collected in interviews and visits to affected locations. It is estimated that the magnitude of the losses exceeds the country's capacity to address reparations and mitigation without serious dislocation of its development trajectory. The government may wish to approach the international community for assistance in this regard. This appraisal is therefore designed to provide the government and the international community with guidelines for setting national and regional priorities in rehabilitation and reconstruction or resettlement programmes. A purely economic conception of the problem would be limited. A more integrated approach would have a human face and consider the alleviation of human suffering in the affected areas while attending to the economic and fiscal fallout of the disaster. Questions of improved physical planning, watershed management, early warning, emergency response and structural preparedness for evacuation and sheltering the vulnerable population are seen as important considerations for the post disaster phase. Special attention and priority should be placed on including sustainability and increased governance criteria in making social and productive investments, and on allocating resources to the reinforcing and retrofitting of vulnerable infrastructure, basic lifelines and services as part of the reconstruction and rehabilitation strategy. The Jamaican society and government face the opportunity of undertaking action with the benefit of revised paradigms, embarking on institutional, legal and structural reforms to reduce economic, social and environmental vulnerability. The history of flood devastation in the very areas of Portland and St. Mary shows a recurrence of flooding. Accounts of flooding from the earliest recorded accounts pertaining to 1837 are available. Recurrences in 1937, 1940, 1943 and 2001 indicate an ever-present probability of recurrence of similar events. The Government may wish to consider the probable consequences of a part of its population living in flood plains and address its position vis-à­¶is land use and the probability of yet another recurrence of flood rains. (1) ECLAC/IDNDR, Manual for estimating the Socio-Economic Effects of Natural Disasters, May,1999.

Questionnaire for monitoring auditory and language development in the first year of life

Purpose: To validate a monitoring questionnaire about hearing and language development applied by community health agents in the first year of life. Methods: Seventy six community health agents, previously trained on infant hearing health, administered a questionnaire to the families of 304 children with ages from 0 to 1 year. The questionnaire contains questions regarding hearing and language development and, for all age groups, the question “Does your child hear well?” was presented. The validity of the questionnaire was assessed by analyzing false positive and false negative rates of the identified children. A double-blind study was conducted so that all children assessed by the questionnaire were submitted to hearing evaluation performed by audiologists. Results: Four children (1.32%) were diagnosed with sensorineural hearing loss (two unilateral), and 69 (22.7%) with conductive hearing loss. The monitoring questionnaire showed specificity of 96% and sensitivity of 67%, with a false-negative rate of 33% for not identifying the unilateral hearing loss, and a false-positive rate of 4%. Conclusion: The questionnaire used has shown to be feasible and relevant to actions of the community health agents of the Family Health Strategy program, with high specificity and moderate sensitivity. The use of the validated instrument should be considered to complement Newborn Hearing Screening Programs, in order to identify late onset or acquired hearing loss.

Transport infrastructure and economic development in least developed countries: the case of Afghanistan

This PhD thesis tries to show the impact of transport infrastructure in economic development in least developed countries and in particular in the case of Afghanistan. Some least developed countries during 1990 to 1999 experienced lack of investment in transportation. Lack of investment further increased the economic development gap between developed and least developed countries. Moreover, lack of literature and research in poor countries such as Afghanistan encouraged me to do my research in this country in order to unveil the problems, facing poor people who are living in inaccessible places and suffer from lack of economic opportunities and long term unemployment. This thesis shows the effect of inaccessibility and immobility in economic opportunities and basic social services in Afghanistan. This thesis is important because it covers the role of transport infrastructures at the moment that international community promised to rebuild the infrastructures of post conflict Afghanistan.

Problems in functioning from the patient perspective using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) as a reference

We conducted a qualitative, multicenter study using a focus group design to explore the lived experiences of persons with any kind of primary sleep disorder with regard to functioning and contextual factors using six open-ended questions related to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) components. We classified the results using the ICF as a frame of reference. We identified the meaningful concepts within the transcribed data and then linked them to ICF categories according to established linking rules. The six focus groups with 27 participants yielded a total of 6986 relevant concepts, which were linked to a total of 168 different second-level ICF categories. From the patient perspective, the ICF components: (1) Body Functions; (2) Activities & Participation; and (3) Environmental Factors were equally represented; while (4) Body Structures appeared poignantly less frequently. Out of the total number of concepts, 1843 concepts (26%) were assigned to the ICF component Personal Factors, which is not yet classified but could indicate important aspects of resource management and strategy development of those who have a sleep disorder. Therefore, treatment of patients with sleep disorders must not be limited to anatomical and (patho-)physiological changes, but should also consider a more comprehensive view that includes patient's demands, strategies and resources in daily life and the contextual circumstances surrounding the individual.

Promoting Local Innovations: A tool for adaptation to climate change and sustainable development in Mountains

Throughout their history mountain communities have had to adapt to changing environmental and socio-economic conditions. They have developed strategies and specialized knowledge to sustain their livelihoods in a context of adverse climatic events and constant change. As negotiations and discussions on climate change emphasize the critical need for locally relevant and community owned adaptation strategies, there is a need for new tools to capitalize on this local knowledge and endogenous potential for innovation. The toolkit Promoting Local Innovation (PLI) was designed by the Centre for Development and Environment (CDE) of the University of Bern, Switzerland, to facilitate a participatory social learning process which identifies locally available innovations that can be implemented for community development. It is based on interactive pedagogy and joint learning among different stakeholders in the local context. The tried-and-tested tool was developed in the Andean region in 2004, and then used in International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) climate change adaptation projects in Thailand, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and Chile. These experiences showed that PLI can be used to involve all relevant stakeholders in establishing strategies and actions needed for rural communities to adapt to climate change impacts, while building on local innovation potential and promoting local ownership

Health, education and community: Assets and needs of a small urban community in north east Tamaulipas, Mexico: A community based participatory research assessment

This study explored the health, education, social assets, needs, attitudes, and behaviors of residents of Ferrocarril #4, a small urban community in Tamaulipas, Mexico. A collaborative Participatory Action Research approach was used to emphasize community involvement. Using Triangulation to ensure validity, qualitative methods included key informant in depth interviews, participant observation and participatory discussion groups with women and men. A personal interview with a probability sample of women was done. The median age of interviewees was 37 years. The majority was married or had a partner. Over half of respondents completed grades 6-9. Employed women (25%) earned a median weekly salary equivalent to ∼56 USD. Women with health insurance (67.7%) were covered mainly through Social Security and Seguro Popular. One in 5 reported bad health. Barriers to care were primarily money and transportation. To improve health care, women wanted a full service clinic in or close to the community and affordable health care. Socially, 28% of respondents had no close friends in the community and most did not participate in beneficial community activities. Many women did not socialize with others and help from neighbors was situational. Primary school teachers lacked parental support and it interfered with classroom efforts. Healthy community discussion groups focused on personal and environmental hygiene and safety. Valuable assets exist in the community. To date, collaborative efforts resulted in a school First Aid station, a school nurse visit weekly, posting of emergency contact phone numbers in the school and community center, and development of a student health information form. ^

THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF A COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ON DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES IN HIMALAYAN INDIAN VILLAGES

A community development program operating in the mountains of North India was studied to assess its potential effects on mortality, fertility and migration patterns in the community which it served. The development program operated in Jaunpur Block, Tehri-Garhwal District, Uttar Pradesh State. Two comparable villages in the district were studied. The development program had been working in one for two years, and the other was completely untouched by the program.^ Since not enough time had elapsed since the beginning of the development program's work for any effects on demographic patterns to be visable in Jaunpur Block, this study looked to attitudes of village residents as indicators of future demographic trends. Existing demographic patterns and their interrelationship with socio-religious customs were examined in the test village. A questionnaire was then administered to ascertain attitudinal differences between the residents of the test village and the control village.^ The primary work of the community development program was to train women as village health workers. The results of the attitudinal comparison of the residents of the two villages showed a marked difference in attitudes relating to the position of women in society. The data showed a higher esteem for women in the test village than in the control village, and it is argued that this difference may be attributable to the work of the development program.^ Predicting future demographic trends in Jaunpur Block on the basis of the observed difference in villagers' attitudes toward the status of women is speculatory. Jaunpur Block appears to be in the demographic stage of pre-transition, maintaining relatively high rates of both mortality and fertility. Based on demographic transition theory the next significant change in demographic patterns in Jaunpur is predicted to be a decline in mortality, and an increase in the status of women is unrelated to this prediction.^ The community development program which was studied terminated unexpectedly during the time of this study. A case study of the program's final months is presented, and speculation on the future course of demographic trends in Jaunpur Block is related to the possible alternatives for future development in the area. ^

The observatory of intelligence and territorial development, tool for innovation in processes of territorial planning in municipalities of the province of Jujuy

El municipio es considerado como un espacio donde sus habitantes comparten no sólo el territorio sino también los problemas y los recursos existentes. La institución municipal -como gobierno local- es el ámbito en el cual se toman decisiones sobre el territorio, que implican a sus habitantes. En cuanto a los actores, estos pueden ser funcionarios, empleados y la comunidad (individual y organizada en ongs), todos aportan sus conocimientos y valores, pero tienen diferentes intereses y diferentes tiempos. Vinculada a las decisiones, encontramos que la forma en que se gestiona la información territorial, es determinante si se pretende apuntar hacia acciones con impacto positivo, y sustentables en lo ambiental y en el tiempo. Este trabajo toma tres municipios: San Salvador de Jujuy, capital de la provincia localizada en los Valles Templados; San Pedro de Jujuy, principal municipio de la región de las Yungas y Tilcara en la Quebrada de Humahuaca. El aporte de la Inteligencia Territorial, a través del observatorio OIDTe, permite analizar los modos de gestión de la información, especialmente mediante el uso de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (pagina web municipal, equipamiento informático en las oficinas, estrategias de comunicación y vinculación con la población) y mediante la organización de las estructuras administrativas (organigrama) por las cuales circula la información municipal. Además, con la participación enriquecedora de equipos multidisciplinarios en las diferentes etapas. Se busca, a partir de un diagnóstico, generar estrategias para la introducción de innovaciones con los propios actores municipales, a partir de las situaciones y modos culturales propios de cada lugar, incorporando los marcos conceptuales de la Inteligencia Territorial. En este sentido el OIDTe al promover el entendimiento entre los actores, institucionales y la sociedad, facilita la coordinación de diferentes intereses propiciando la toma de decisiones por acuerdos. Asimismo, el método Portulano, puede orientar la introducción de innovaciones en la coordinación de la información cartográfica, para que las diferentes oficinas puedan complementar sus aportes y la comunicación hacia fuera de la institución. En la fase de diagnóstico, se aplicaron entrevistas a informantes claves, se realizó un workshop con técnicos de planta permanente y funcionarios de áreas que manejan información territorial, y de planificación. También por la importancia de la capacidad instalada de recursos humanos, se analizó el nivel de instrucción y la capacitación con que cuenta el personal de planta permanente de cada área

The observatory of intelligence and territorial development, tool for innovation in processes of territorial planning in municipalities of the province of Jujuy

El municipio es considerado como un espacio donde sus habitantes comparten no sólo el territorio sino también los problemas y los recursos existentes. La institución municipal -como gobierno local- es el ámbito en el cual se toman decisiones sobre el territorio, que implican a sus habitantes. En cuanto a los actores, estos pueden ser funcionarios, empleados y la comunidad (individual y organizada en ongs), todos aportan sus conocimientos y valores, pero tienen diferentes intereses y diferentes tiempos. Vinculada a las decisiones, encontramos que la forma en que se gestiona la información territorial, es determinante si se pretende apuntar hacia acciones con impacto positivo, y sustentables en lo ambiental y en el tiempo. Este trabajo toma tres municipios: San Salvador de Jujuy, capital de la provincia localizada en los Valles Templados; San Pedro de Jujuy, principal municipio de la región de las Yungas y Tilcara en la Quebrada de Humahuaca. El aporte de la Inteligencia Territorial, a través del observatorio OIDTe, permite analizar los modos de gestión de la información, especialmente mediante el uso de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (pagina web municipal, equipamiento informático en las oficinas, estrategias de comunicación y vinculación con la población) y mediante la organización de las estructuras administrativas (organigrama) por las cuales circula la información municipal. Además, con la participación enriquecedora de equipos multidisciplinarios en las diferentes etapas. Se busca, a partir de un diagnóstico, generar estrategias para la introducción de innovaciones con los propios actores municipales, a partir de las situaciones y modos culturales propios de cada lugar, incorporando los marcos conceptuales de la Inteligencia Territorial. En este sentido el OIDTe al promover el entendimiento entre los actores, institucionales y la sociedad, facilita la coordinación de diferentes intereses propiciando la toma de decisiones por acuerdos. Asimismo, el método Portulano, puede orientar la introducción de innovaciones en la coordinación de la información cartográfica, para que las diferentes oficinas puedan complementar sus aportes y la comunicación hacia fuera de la institución. En la fase de diagnóstico, se aplicaron entrevistas a informantes claves, se realizó un workshop con técnicos de planta permanente y funcionarios de áreas que manejan información territorial, y de planificación. También por la importancia de la capacidad instalada de recursos humanos, se analizó el nivel de instrucción y la capacitación con que cuenta el personal de planta permanente de cada área

The observatory of intelligence and territorial development, tool for innovation in processes of territorial planning in municipalities of the province of Jujuy

El municipio es considerado como un espacio donde sus habitantes comparten no sólo el territorio sino también los problemas y los recursos existentes. La institución municipal -como gobierno local- es el ámbito en el cual se toman decisiones sobre el territorio, que implican a sus habitantes. En cuanto a los actores, estos pueden ser funcionarios, empleados y la comunidad (individual y organizada en ongs), todos aportan sus conocimientos y valores, pero tienen diferentes intereses y diferentes tiempos. Vinculada a las decisiones, encontramos que la forma en que se gestiona la información territorial, es determinante si se pretende apuntar hacia acciones con impacto positivo, y sustentables en lo ambiental y en el tiempo. Este trabajo toma tres municipios: San Salvador de Jujuy, capital de la provincia localizada en los Valles Templados; San Pedro de Jujuy, principal municipio de la región de las Yungas y Tilcara en la Quebrada de Humahuaca. El aporte de la Inteligencia Territorial, a través del observatorio OIDTe, permite analizar los modos de gestión de la información, especialmente mediante el uso de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (pagina web municipal, equipamiento informático en las oficinas, estrategias de comunicación y vinculación con la población) y mediante la organización de las estructuras administrativas (organigrama) por las cuales circula la información municipal. Además, con la participación enriquecedora de equipos multidisciplinarios en las diferentes etapas. Se busca, a partir de un diagnóstico, generar estrategias para la introducción de innovaciones con los propios actores municipales, a partir de las situaciones y modos culturales propios de cada lugar, incorporando los marcos conceptuales de la Inteligencia Territorial. En este sentido el OIDTe al promover el entendimiento entre los actores, institucionales y la sociedad, facilita la coordinación de diferentes intereses propiciando la toma de decisiones por acuerdos. Asimismo, el método Portulano, puede orientar la introducción de innovaciones en la coordinación de la información cartográfica, para que las diferentes oficinas puedan complementar sus aportes y la comunicación hacia fuera de la institución. En la fase de diagnóstico, se aplicaron entrevistas a informantes claves, se realizó un workshop con técnicos de planta permanente y funcionarios de áreas que manejan información territorial, y de planificación. También por la importancia de la capacidad instalada de recursos humanos, se analizó el nivel de instrucción y la capacitación con que cuenta el personal de planta permanente de cada área

Mesozooplankton community development at elevated CO2

The increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere caused by burning fossil fuels leads to increasing pCO2 and decreasing pH in the world ocean. These changes may have severe consequences for marine biota, especially in cold-water ecosystems due to higher solubility of CO2. However, studies on the response of mesozooplankton communities to elevated CO2 are still lacking. In order to test whether abundance and taxonomic composition change with pCO2, we have sampled nine mesocosms, which were deployed in Kongsfjorden, an Arctic fjord at Svalbard, and were adjusted to eight CO2 concentrations, initially ranging from 185 µatm to 1420 µatm. Vertical net hauls were taken weekly over about one month with an Apstein net (55 µm mesh size) in all mesocosms and the surrounding fjord. In addition, sediment trap samples, taken every second day in the mesocosms, were analysed to account for losses due to vertical migration and mortality. The taxonomic analysis revealed that meroplanktonic larvae (Cirripedia, Polychaeta, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, and Decapoda) dominated in the mesocosms while copepods (Calanus spp., Oithona similis, Acartia longiremis and Microsetella norvegica) were found in lower abundances. In the fjord copepods prevailed for most of our study. With time, abundance and taxonomic composition developed similarly in all mesocosms and the pCO2 had no significant effect on the overall community structure. Also, we did not find significant relationships between the pCO2 level and the abundance of single taxa. Changes in heterogeneous communities are, however, difficult to detect, and the exposure to elevated pCO2 was relatively short. We therefore suggest that future mesocosm experiments should be run for longer periods.

Key Factors to Successful Community Development: The Korean Experience

The Saemaul Undong of the Republic of Korea has been world-widely recognized as a successful model of rural community development. The Saemaul Undong was a pure Korean way of community development program which was initiated by the political will of the top national leadership in order to escape from poverty. There are several key factors to the success of the Saemaul Undong. First, the national government's guidance and support for the movement played a very important role in the whole period of the movement. Second, there was a wide range of people's participation in the implementation process. Third, the Saemaul Undong could make a big success by nurturing community leadership which was selected by rural residents themselves. Finally, as a movement for the spiritual reform, the Saemaul Undong imbued the people with the spirits of diligence, the self-reliance, and cooperation.

Social involvement for community development in rural areas of Cuenca, Spain

Community development must be accompanied by a social involvement process which creates functional groups of citizens capable of taking responsibility for their own development. It is important that this process promotes the structuring of all population groups and provides the appropriate institutional and technical support. The present paper addresses these issues based on over 25 years of experience by the Association Instituto de Desarrollo Comunitario de Cuenca in revitalizing rural areas of the Spanish province of Cuenca. This paper analyses the social involvement process encouraged by this association, the relationships between public institutions and local associations, the role of these associations and the difficulties encountered in the rural areas. The long-term perspective of this experience provides some keys which can be used to successfully support the process of social involvement ―such as information on its characteristics and methodological tools―, establish local associations and create sustainable partnerships that foster the growth of leadership within the community development process.