Dynamic changes in high and low mammographic density human breast tissues maintained in murine tissue engineering chambers during various murine peripartum states and over time

Mammographic density (MD) is a strong heritable risk factor for breast cancer, and may decrease with increasing parity. However, the biomolecular basis for MD-associated breast cancer remains unclear, and systemic hormonal effects on MD-associated risk is poorly understood. This study assessed the effect of murine peripartum states on high and low MD tissue maintained in a xenograft model of human MD. Method High and low MD human breast tissues were precisely sampled under radiographic guidance from prophylactic mastectomy specimens of women. The high and low MD tissues were maintained in separate vascularised biochambers in nulliparous or pregnant SCID mice for 4 weeks, or mice undergoing postpartum involution or lactation for three additional weeks. High and low MD biochamber material was harvested for histologic and radiographic comparisons during various murine peripartum states. High and low MD biochamber tissues in nulliparous mice were harvested at different timepoints for histologic and radiographic comparisons. Results High MD biochamber tissues had decreased stromal (p = 0.0027), increased adipose (p = 0.0003) and a trend to increased glandular tissue areas (p = 0.076) after murine postpartum involution. Stromal areas decreased (p = 0.042), while glandular (p = 0.001) and adipose areas (p = 0.009) increased in high MD biochamber tissues during lactation. A difference in radiographic density was observed in high (p = 0.0021) or low MD biochamber tissues (p = 0.004) between nulliparous, pregnant and involution groups. No differences in tissue composition were observed in high or low MD biochamber tissues maintained for different durations, although radiographic density increased over time. Conclusion High MD biochamber tissues had measurable histologic changes after postpartum involution or lactation. Alterations in radiographic density occurred in biochamber tissues between different peripartum states and over time. These findings demonstrate the dynamic nature of the human MD xenograft model, providing a platform for studying the biomolecular basis of MD-associated cancer risk. © 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Regulation of ROCK1 via Notch1 during breast cancer cell migration into dense matrices

Background The behaviour of tumour cells depends on factors such as genetics and the tumour microenvironment. The latter plays a crucial role in normal mammary gland development and also in breast cancer initiation and progression. Breast cancer tissues tend to be highly desmoplastic and dense matrix as a pre-existing condition poses one of the highest risk factors for cancer development. However, matrix influence on tumour cell gene expression and behaviour such as cell migration is not fully elucidated. Results We generated high-density (HD) matrices that mimicked tumour collagen content of 20 mg/cm3 that were ~14-fold stiffer than low-density (LD) matrix of 1 mg/cm3. Live-cell imaging showed breast cancer cells utilizing cytoplasmic streaming and cell body contractility for migration within HD matrix. Cell migration was blocked in the presence of both the ROCK inhibitor, Y-27632, and the MMP inhibitor, GM6001, but not by the drugs individually. This suggests roles for ROCK1 and MMP in cell migration are complicated by compensatory mechanisms. ROCK1 expression and protein activity, were significantly upregulated in HD matrix but these were blocked by treatment with a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, MS-275. In HD matrix, the inhibition of ROCK1 by MS-275 was indirect and relied upon protein synthesis and Notch1. Inhibition of Notch1 using pooled siRNA or DAPT abrogated the inhibition of ROCK1 by MS-275. Conclusion Increased matrix density elevates ROCK1 activity, which aids in cell migration via cell contractility. The upregulation of ROCK1 is epigenetically regulated in an indirect manner involving the repression of Notch1. This is demonstrated from inhibition of HDACs by MS-275, which caused an upregulation of Notch1 levels leading to blockade of ROCK1 expression.

Induction of epithelial to mesenchymal transition in PMC42-LA human breast carcinoma cells by carcinoma-associated fibroblast secreted factors

Background Breast carcinoma is accompanied by changes in the acellular and cellular components of the microenvironment, the latter typified by a switch from fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. Methods: We utilised conditioned media cultures, Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry to investigate the differential effects of normal mammary fibroblasts (NMFs) and mammary cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) on the phenotype and behaviour of PMC42-LA breast cancer cells. NMFs were obtained from a mammary gland at reduction mammoplasty, and CAFs from a mammary carcinoma after resection. Results We found greater expression of myofibroblastic markers in CAFs than in NMFs. Medium from both CAFs and NMFs induced novel expression of α-smooth muscle actin and cytokeratin-14 in PMC42-LA organoids. However, although conditioned media from NMFs resulted in distribution of vimentin-positive cells to the periphery of PMC42-LA organoids, this was not seen with CAF-conditioned medium. Upregulation of vimentin was accompanied by a mis-localization of E-cadherin, suggesting a loss of adhesive function. This was confirmed by visualizing the change in active β-catenin, localized to the cell junctions in control cells/ cells in NMF-conditioned medium, to inactive β-catenin, localized to nuclei and cytoplasm in cells in CAF-conditioned medium. Conclusion We found no significant difference between the influences of NMFs and CAFs on PMC42-LA cell proliferation, viability, or apoptosis; significantly, we demonstrated a role for CAFs, but not for NMFs, in increasing the migratory ability of PMC42-LA cells. By concentrating NMF-conditioned media, we demonstrated the presence of factor(s) that induce epithelial-mesenchymal transition in NMF-conditioned media that are present at higher levels in CAF-conditioned media. Our in vitro results are consistent with observations in vivo showing that alterations in stroma influence the phenotype and behaviour of surrounding cells and provide evidence for a role for CAFs in stimulating cancer progression via an epithelial-mesenchymal transition. These findings have implications for our understanding of the roles of signalling between epithelial and stromal cells in the development and progression of mammary carcinoma.

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition and breast cancer

Epithelial-mesenchymal plasticity in breast carcinoma encompasses the phenotypic spectrum whereby epithelial carcinoma cells within a primary tumor acquire mesenchymal features and re-epithelialize to form a cohesive secondary mass at a metastatic site. Such plasticity has implications in progression of breast carcinoma to metastasis, and will likely influence response to therapy. The transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of molecular and cellular processes that underlie breast cancer and result in characteristic changes in cell behavior can be monitored using an increasing array of marker proteins. Amongst these markers exists the potential for emergent prognostic, predictive and therapeutic targeting.

Molecular and cellular analysis of basement membrane invasion by human breast cancer cells in Matrigel-based in vitro assays

In vitro analyses of basement membrane invasiveness employing Matrigel (a murine tumor extract rich in basement membrane components) have been performed on human breast cancer model systems. Constitutive invasiveness of different human breast cancer (HBC) cell lines has been examined as well as regulation by steroid hormones, growth factors, and oncogenes. Carcinoma cells exhibiting a mesenchymal-like phenotype (vimentin expression, lack of cell border associated uvomorulin) show dramatically increased motility, invasiveness, and metastatic potential in nude mice. These findings support the hypothesis that epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT)-like events may be instrumental in the metastatic progression of human breast cancer. The MCF-7 subline MCF-7ADR appears to have undergone such a transition. The importance of such a transition may be reflected in the emergence of vimentin expression as an indicator of poor prognosis in HBC. Matrix degradation and laminin recognition are highlighted as potential targets for antimetastatic therapy, and analyses of laminin attachment and the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) family in HBC cell lines are summarized. Matrigel-based assays have proved useful in the study of the molecular mechanisms of basement membrane invasiveness, their regulation in HBC cells, and their potential as targets for antimetastatic therapy.

High and low mammographic density human breast tissues maintain histological differential in murine tissue engineering chambers

Mammographic density (MD) is the area of breast tissue that appears radiologically white on mammography. Although high MD is a strong risk factor for breast cancer, independent of BRCA1/2 mutation status, the molecular basis of high MD and its associated breast cancer risk is poorly understood. MD studies will benefit from an animal model, where hormonal, gene and drug perturbations on MD can be measured in a preclinical context. High and low MD tissues were selectively sampled by stereotactic biopsy from operative specimens of high-risk women undergoing prophylactic mastectomy. The high and low MD tissues were transferred into separate vascularised biochambers in the groins of SCID mice. Chamber material was harvested after 6 weeks for histological analyses and immunohistochemistry for cytokeratins, vimentin and a human-specific mitochondrial antigen. Within-individual analysis was performed in replicate mice, eliminating confounding by age, body mass index and process-related factors, and comparisons were made to the parental human tissue. Maintenance of differential MD post-propagation was assessed radiographically. Immunohistochemical staining confirmed the preservation of human glandular and stromal components in the murine biochambers, with maintenance of radiographic MD differential. Propagated high MD regions had higher stromal (p = 0.0002) and lower adipose (p = 0.0006) composition, reflecting the findings in the original human breast tissue, although glands appeared small and non-complex in both high and low MD groups. No significant differences were observed in glandular area (p = 0.4) or count (p = 0.4) between high and low MD biochamber tissues. Human mammary glandular and stromal tissues were viably maintained in murine biochambers, with preservation of differential radiographic density and histological features. Our study provides a murine model for future studies into the biomolecular basis of MD as a risk factor for breast cancer.

Hormonal carcinogenesis in breast cancer : cellular and molecular studies of malignant progression

We have established and characterized a series of variant cell lines in which to identify the critical factors associated with E2-induced malignant progression, and the acquisition to tamoxifen resistance in human breast cancer. Sublines of the hormone-dependent MCF-7 cell line (MCF7/MIII and MCF7/LCC1) form stable, invasive, estrogen independent tumors in the mammary fat pads of ovariectomized athymic nude mice. These cells retain expression of both estrogen (ER) and progesterone receptors (PGR), but retain sensitivity to each of the major structural classes of antiestrogens. The tamoxifen-resistant MCF7/LCC2 cells retain sensitivity to the inhibitory effects of the steroidal antiestrogen ICI 182780. By comparing the parental hormone-dependent and variant hormone-independent cells, we have demonstrated an altered expression of some estrogen regulated genes (PGR, pS2, cathepsin D) in the hormone-independent variants. Other genes remain normally estrogen regulated (ER, laminin receptor, EGF-receptor). These data strongly implicate the altered regulation of a specific subset or network of estrogen regulated genes in the malignant progression of human breast cancer. Some of the primary response genes in this network may exhibit dose-response and induction kinetics similar to pS2, which is constitutively upregulated in the MCF7/MIII, MCF7/LCC1 and MCF7/LCC2 cells.

Hormone resistance, invasiveness, and metastatic potential in breast cancer

Critical phenotypic changes that occur during the progression of breast cancer include the loss of hormone-dependence, acquired resistance to systemic therapies, and increased metastatic potential. We have isolated a series of MCF-7 human breast cancer variants which exhibit hormone-independent growth, antiestrogen resistance, and increased metastatic potential. Analysis of the phenotypes of these variants strongly suggests that changes in the expression of specific genes may be critical to the generation of phenotypic diversity in the process of malignant progression in breast cancer. Epigenetic changes may contribute significantly to the generation of these phenotypic changes observed during breast cancer progression. Many of the characteristics of the progressed phenotypes appear to have arisen in response to appropriate selective pressures (growth in ovariectomized nude mice; growth in the presence of antiestrogens). These observations are consistent with the concept of clonal selection and expansion in the process of malignant progression.

Doxycycline-inducible expression of SPARC/Osteonectin/BM40 in MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells results in growth inhibition

SPARC (secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine)/BM40/Osteonectin is a matricellular protein with multiple effects on cell behaviour. In vitro, its major known functions are anti-adhesive and anti-proliferative, and it is associated with tissue remodelling and cancer in vivo. SPARC is overexpressed in many cancers, including breast cancer, and the effects of SPARC seem to be cell type-specific. To study the effects of SPARC on breast cancer, we transfected SPARC into the MDA-MB-231 BAG, human breast cancer cell line using the Tet-On inducible system. By western analysis, we found low background levels in the MDA-MB-231 BAG and clone X parental cells, and prominent induction of SPARC protein expression after doxycycline treatment in SPARC transfected clones X5, X21, X24 and X75. Induction of SPARC expression did not affect cell morphology or adhesiveness to collagens type I and IV, but it slowed the rate of proliferation in adherent cultures. Cell cycle analysis showed that SPARC slowed the progression to S phase. Doxycycline induction of SPARC also slowed the rate of monolayer wound closure in the cultured wound healing assay. Thymidine inhibition of proliferation abrogated this effect, confirming that it was due to anti-proliferation rather than inhibition of migration. Consistent with this, we were unable to detect any differences in migration and Matrigel outgrowth analysis of doxycycline-stimulated cells. We conclude that SPARC is inhibitory to human breast cancer cell proliferation, and does not stimulate migration, in contrast to its stimulatory effects reported for melanoma (proliferation and migration) and glioma (migration) cells. Similar growth repression by SPARC has been reported for ovarian cancer cells, and this may be a common feature among carcinomas.

Image-guided sampling reveals increased stroma and lower glandular complexity in mammographically dense breast tissue

Mammographic density (MD) adjusted for age and body mass index (BMI) is a strong heritable breast cancer risk factor; however, its biological basis remains elusive. Previous studies assessed MD-associated histology using random sampling approaches, despite evidence that high and low MD areas exist within a breast and are negatively correlated with respect to one another. We have used an image-guided approach to sample high and low MD tissues from within individual breasts to examine the relationship between histology and degree of MD. Image-guided sampling was performed using two different methodologies on mastectomy tissues (n = 12): (1) sampling of high and low MD regions within a slice guided by bright (high MD) and dark (low MD) areas in a slice X-ray film; (2) sampling of high and low MD regions within a whole breast using a stereotactically guided vacuum-assisted core biopsy technique. Pairwise analysis accounting for potential confounders (i.e. age, BMI, menopausal status, etc.) provides appropriate power for analysis despite the small sample size. High MD tissues had higher stromal (P = 0.002) and lower fat (P = 0.002) compositions, but no evidence of difference in glandular areas (P = 0.084) compared to low MD tissues from the same breast. High MD regions had higher relative gland counts (P = 0.023), and a preponderance of Type I lobules in high MD compared to low MD regions was observed in 58% of subjects (n = 7), but did not achieve significance. These findings clarify the histologic nature of high MD tissue and support hypotheses regarding the biophysical impact of dense connective tissue on mammary malignancy. They also provide important terms of reference for ongoing analyses of the underlying genetics of MD.

Differentiation state and invasiveness of human breast cancer cell lines

Eighteen breast cancer cell lines were examined for expression of markers of epithelial and fibroblastic differentiation: E-cadherin, desmoplakins, ZO- 1, vimentin, keratin and β1 and β4 integrins. The cell lines were distributed along a spectrum of differentiation from epithelial to fibroblastic phenotypes. The most well-differentiated, epithelioid cell lines contained proteins characteristic of desmosomal, adherens and tight junctions, were adherent to one another on plastic and in the basement membrane matrix Matrigel and were keratin-positive and vimentin-negative. These cell lines were all weakly invasive in an in vitro chemoinvasion assay. The most poorly-differentiated, fibroblastic cell lines were E-cadherin-, desmoplakin- and ZO-1-negative and formed branching structures in Matrigel. They were vimentin-positive, contained only low levels of keratins and were highly invasive in the in vitro chemoinvasion assay. Of all of the markers analyzed, vimentin expression correlated best with in vitro invasive ability and fibroblastic differentiation. In a cell line with unstable expression of vimentin, T47D(CO), the cells that were invasive were of the fibroblastic type. The differentiation markers described here may be useful for analysis of clinical specimens and could potentially provide a more precise measure of differentiation grade yielding more power for predicting prognosis.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate, a novel second messenger involved in cell growth regulation and signal transduction, affects growth and invasiveness of human breast cancer cells

This review will focus on the role of sphingosine and its phosphorylated derivative sphingosine-1-phosphate (SPP) in cell growth regulation and signal transduction. We will show that many of the effects attributed to sphingosine in quiescent Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts are mediated via its conversion to SPP. We propose that SPP has appropriate properties to function as an intracellular second messenger based on the following: it elicits diverse cellular responses; it is rapidly produced from sphingosine by a specific kinase and rapidly degraded by a specific lyase; its concentration is low in quiescent cells but increases rapidly and transiently in response to the growth factors, fetal calf serum (FCS) and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF); it releases Ca2+ from internal sources in an InsP3-independent manner; and finally, it may link sphingolipid signaling pathways to cellular ras-mediated signaling pathways by elevating phosphatidic acid levels. The effects of this novel second messenger on growth, differentiation and invasion of human breast cancer cells will be discussed. © 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Modulation of breast cancer progression and differentiation by the gp30/neregulin

In the last decade we have come to understand that the growth of cancer cells in general and of breast cancer in particular depends, in many cases, upon growth factors that will bind to and activate their receptors. One of these growth factor receptors is the erbB-2 protein which plays an important role in the prognosis of breast cancer and is overexpressed in nearly 30% of human breast cancer patients. While evidence accumulates to support the relationship between erbB-2 overexpression and poor overall survival in breast cancer, understanding of the biological consequence(s) of erbB-2 overexpression remains elusive. Our recent discovery of the gp30 has allowed us to identify a number of related but distinct biological endpoints which appear responsive to signal transduction through the erbB-2 receptor. These endpoints of growth, invasiveness, and differentiation have clear implications for the emergence, maintenance and/or control of malignancy, and represent established endpoints in the assessment of malignant progression in breast cancer. We have shown that gp30 induces a biphasic growth effect on cells with erbB-2 over-expression. We have recently determined the protein sequence of gp30 and cloned its full length cDNA sequence. We have also cloned two additional forms to the ligand, that are believed to be different isoforms. We are currently expressing the different forms in order to determine their biological effects. To elucidate the cellular mechanisms underlying cell growth inhibition by gp30, we tested the effect of this ligand on cell growth and differentiation of the human breast cancer cells which overexpress erbB-2 and cells which express low levels of this protooncogene. High concentrations of ligand induced differentiation of cells overexpressing erbB-2, as measured by inhibition of cell growth, and increased synthesis of milk components, and modulation of E-cadherin and up- regulation of c-jun and c-fos. These findings indicate that ligand-induced growth inhibition in cells overexpressing erbB-2 is associated with an apparent induction of differentiation. The availability of gp30 derived synthetic peptides and its full cDNAs provides tools necessary to acquire a better understanding of the mechanism of action of the this ligands and the erbB-2 receptor in breast cancer.

Collagen induced MMP-2 activation in human breast cancer

Matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), a zymogen requiring proteolytic activation for catalytic activity, has been implicated broadly in the invasion and metastasis of many cancer model systems, including human breast cancer (HBC). MMP-2 has been immunolocalized to carcinomatous human breast, where the degree of activation of MMP-2 correlates well with tumor grade and patient prognosis. Using Matrigel assays, we have stratified HBC cell lines for invasiveness in vitro, and compared this to their potential for metastatic spread in nude mice. HBC cell lines expressing the mesenchymal marker protein vimentin were found to be highly invasive in vitro, and tended to form metastases in nude mice. We have further discovered that culture on collagen-I gels (Vitrogen(TM): Vg) induces MMP-2-activator in highly invasive but not poorly invasive HBC cell lines. As seen for other MMP-2-activator inducing regimens, this induction requires protein synthesis and an intact MMP-2 hemopexin-like domain, appears to be mediated by a cell surface activity, and can be inhibited by metalloproteinase inhibitors. The induction is highly specific to collagen I, and is not seen with thin coatings of collagen I, collagen IV, laminin, or fibronectin, or with 3-dimensional gels of laminin, Matrigel, or gelatin. This review focuses on collagen I and MMP- 2, their localization and source in HBC, and their relationship(s) to MMP-2 activation and HBC metastasis. The relevance of collagen I in activation of MMP-2 in vivo is discussed in terms of stromal cell: tumor cell interaction for collagen I deposition, MMP-2 production and MMP-2-activation. Such cooperativity may exist in vivo for MMP-2 participation in HBC dissemination. A more complete understanding of the regulation of MMP-2-activator by type I collagen may provide new avenues for improved diagnosis and prognosis of human breast cancer.

MCF7/LCC2: A 4-hydroxytamoxifen resistant human breast cancer variant that retains sensitivity to the steroidal antiestrogen ICI 182,780

The development of resistance to the antiestrogen tamoxifen occurs in a high percentage of initially responsive patients. We have developed a new model in which to investigate acquired resistance to triphenylethylenes. A stepwise in vitro selection of the hormone-independent human breast cancer variant MCF-7/LCC1 against 4-hydroxytamoxifen produced a stable resistant population designated MCF7/LCC2. MCF7/LCC2 cells retain levels of estrogen receptor expression comparable to the parental MCF7/LCC1 and MCF-7 cells. Progesterone receptor expression remains estrogen inducible in MCF7/LCC2 cells, although to levels significantly lower than observed in MCF-7 and MCF7/LCC1 cells. MCF7/ LCC2 cells form tumors in ovariectomized nude mice without estrogen supplementation, and these tumors are tamoxifen resistant but can be tstrogen stimulated. Significantly, MCF7/LCC2 cells have retained sensitivity to the steroidal antiestrogen ICI 182,780. These data suggest that some breast cancer patients who acquire resistance to tamoxifen may not develop cross-resistance to treatment with steroidal antiestrogens.