Behavioral responses of Escherichia coli to changes in redox potential.

Escherichia coli bacteria sensed the redox state in their surroundings and they swam to a niche that had a preferred reduction potential. In a spatial redox gradient of benzoquinone/benzoquinol, E. coli cells migrated to form a sharply defined band. Bacteria swimming out of either face of the band tumbled and returned to the preferred conditions at the site of the band. This behavioral response was named redox taxis. Redox molecules, such as substituted quinones, that elicited redox taxis, interact with the bacterial electron transport system, thereby altering electron transport and the proton motive force. The magnitude of the behavioral response was dependent on the reduction potential of the chemoeffector. The Tsr, Tar, Trg, Tap, and CheR proteins, which have a role in chemotaxis, were not essential for redox taxis. A cheB mutant had inverted responses in redox taxis, as previously demonstrated in aerotaxis. A model is proposed in which a redox effector molecule perturbs the electron transport system, and an unknown sensor in the membrane detects changes in the proton motive force or the redox status of the electron transport system, and transduces this information into a signal that regulates phosphorylation of the CheA protein. A similar mechanism has been proposed for aerotaxis. Redox taxis may play an important role in the distribution of bacterial species in natural environments.

Behavioral genetics of thermosensation and hygrosensation in Drosophila.

Whereas temperature and humidity are critical variables affecting physiology, behavior, and evolution, the genetic and neuronal underpinnings of thermosensation and hygrosensation remain poorly understood. We have initiated a behavioral-genetic investigation of these sensory systems in Drosophila. Behavioral tests are described for the rapid screening of mutants defective in thermosensation and hygrosensation. We demonstrate the strong responses of normal flies to temperature and humidity. Two mutants were found with defects in thermosensation, only one of which is also defective in hygrosensation, indicating that they involve different sensory mechanisms. Ablation experiments further separate these sensory systems by showing that thermoreceptors are housed in the third antennal segment, whereas hygroreceptors are located more distally in the antennal arista.

Behavioral stress modifies hippocampal plasticity through N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor activation.

Behavioral stress has detrimental effects on subsequent cognitive performance in many species, including humans. For example, humans exposed to stressful situations typically exhibit marked deficits in various learning and memory tasks. However, the underlying neural mechanisms by which stress exerts its effects on learning and memory are unknown. We now report that in adult male rats, stress (i.e., restraint plus tailshock) impairs long-term potentiation (LTP) but enhances long-term depression (LTD) in the CA1 area of the hippocampus, a structure implicated in learning and memory processes. These effects on LTP and LTD are prevented when the animals were given CGP39551 (the carboxyethylester of CGP 37849; DL-(E)-2-amino-4-methyl-5-phosphono-3-pentenoic acid), a competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, before experiencing stress. In contrast, the anxiolytic drug diazepam did not block the stress effects on hippocampal plasticity. Thus, the effects of stress on subsequent LTP and LTD appear to be mediated through the activation of the NMDA subtype of glutamate receptors. Such modifications in hippocampal plasticity may contribute to learning and memory impairments associated with stress.

A behavioral screen for isolating zebrafish mutants with visual system defects.

Optokinetic and phototactic behaviors of zebrafish larvae were examined for their usefulness in screening for recessive defects in the visual system. The optokinetic response can be reliably and rapidly detected in 5-day larvae, whereas the phototactic response of larvae is variable and not robust enough to be useful for screening. We therefore measured optokinetic responses of mutagenized larvae as a genetic screen for visual system defects. Third-generation larvae, representing 266 mutagenized genomes, were examined for abnormal optokinetic responses. Eighteen optokinetic-defective mutants were identified and two mutants that did not show obvious morphological defects, no optokinetic response a (noa) and partial optokinetic response a (poa), were studied further. We recorded the electroretinogram (ERG) to determine whether these two mutations affect the retina. The b-wave of noa larvae was grossly abnormal, being delayed in onset and significantly reduced in amplitude. In contrast, the ERG waveform of poa larvae was normal, although the b-wave was reduced in amplitude in bright light. Histologically, the retinas of noa and poa larvae appeared normal. We conclude that noa larvae have a functional defect in the outer retina, whereas the outer retina of poa larvae is likely to be normal.

Genetic variation in vulnerability to the behavioral effects of neonatal hippocampal damage in rats.

We explored how two independent variables, one genetic (i.e., specific rat strains) and another environmental (i.e., a developmental excitotoxic hippocampal lesion), contribute to phenotypic variation. Sprague-Dawley (SD), Fischer 344 (F344), and Lewis rats underwent two grades of neonatal excitotoxic damage: small and large ventral hippocampal (SVH and LVH) lesions. Locomotion was tested before puberty [postnatal day 35 (P35)] and after puberty (P56) following exposure to a novel environment or administration of amphetamine. The behavioral effects were strain- and lesion-specific. As shown previously, SD rats with LVH lesions displayed enhanced spontaneous and amphetamine-induced locomotion as compared with controls at P56, but not at P35. SVH lesions in SD rats had no effect at any age. In F344 rats with LVH lesions, enhanced spontaneous and amphetamine-induced locomotion appeared early (P35) and was exaggerated at P56. SVH lesions in F344 rats resulted in a pattern of effects analogous to LVH lesions in SD rats--i.e., postpubertal onset of hyperlocomotion (P56). In Lewis rats, LVH lesions had no significant effect on novelty- or amphetamine-induced locomotion at any age. These data show that the degree of genetic predisposition and the extent of early induced hippocampal defect contribute to the particular pattern of behavioral outcome. These results may have implications for modeling interactions of genetic and environmental factors involved in schizophrenia, a disorder characterized by phenotypic heterogeneity, genetic predisposition, a developmental hippocampal abnormality, and vulnerability to environmental stress.

Mutant mice lacking the gamma isoform of protein kinase C show decreased behavioral actions of ethanol and altered function of gamma-aminobutyrate type A receptors.

Calcium/phospholipid-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase C, PKC) has been suggested to play a role in the sensitivity of gamma-aminobutyrate type A (GABAA) receptors to ethanol. We tested a line of null mutant mice that lacks the gamma isoform of PKC (PKC gamma) to determine the role of this brain-specific isoenzyme in ethanol sensitivity. We found that the mutation reduced the amount of PKC gamma immunoreactivity in cerebellum to undetectable levels without altering the levels of the alpha, beta I, or beta II isoforms of PKC. The mutant mice display reduced sensitivity to the effects of ethanol on loss of righting reflex and hypothermia but show normal responses to flunitrazepam or pentobarbital. Likewise, GABAA receptor function of isolated brain membranes showed that the mutation abolished the action of ethanol but did not alter actions of flunitrazepam or pentobarbital. These studies show the unique interactions of ethanol with GABAA receptors and suggest protein kinase isoenzymes as possible determinants of genetic differences in response to ethanol.

Behavioral expression of emotions and non-invasive assessment of physiological correlates in dogs (Canis familiaris)

The aim of this thesis was to validate the use of infrared thermography (IRT) to non-invasively measure emotional reactions to different situations in pet dogs (Canis familiaris). A preliminary test, aimed to evaluate the correlation between eye-temperature and rectal temperature in dog, was performed. Then, in three different situations, negative (veterinary visit), positive (palatable food rewards), and mildly stressing followed by mildly positive (separation from and reunion with the owner), variations in heat emitted from lacrimal caruncle (referred to as eye temperature) were measured with an infrared thermographic camera. In addition, heart rate and heart rate variability parameters were collected using a non-invasive heart rate monitor designed for human use and validated on dogs. All experiments were video recorded to allow behavioral coding. During the negative situation dogs’ level of activity and stress related behaviors varied across compared to the baseline and dogs showed an increase in eye temperature despite having a significant decrease in the level of activity. The positive situation was characterized by a peak in eye temperature and mean HR and dogs engaged in behaviors indicating a positive arousal, focusing on food treats and tail wagging but there were not variations in HRV during stimulation but only an increment in SDNN immediately after the stimulus. In the separation from and reunion with the owner dogs’ eye temperature and mean HR did not vary neither in the stressful nor in the positive situations, RMSSD increased after the positive episode, SDNN dropped during the two stimulations and it increased after the stimulations. During the separation from the owner dogs were mainly directed to the door or to the experimenter while during the reunion with the owner dogs were focused mainly on the owner and on the environment, exhibiting safe base effect. A different approach was used to assess the welfare of shelter dogs. Dogs were implanted with a telemeter and after implantation dogs were housed in sequence in four different situations lasting 1 week: alone, alone with toys and a stretch cot for sleeping, with an unknown, spayed, female, and alone with a daily 2-hours interaction with an experimenter. Two different approaches were tried: partially random extracted fragments from every week, behaviors from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. were continuous during baseline and the female situation. Results showed different reactions by dogs to the different situations and interestingly not all enrichments were enjoyed by the dogs improving their welfare. Overall results suggest that IRT may represent a useful tool to investigate emotional reactions in dogs. Nevertheless, further research is needed to establish the specificity and sensivity of IRT in this context and to assess how different dogs’ characteristics, breed, previous experience and the valence and arousal elicited by the stimulus could influence the magnitude and type of the response. The role of HRV in understanding emotional valence and the one of telemeters in understanding long-term effects on sheltered dogs’ welfare is also discussed.

A Young Child's Anxiety and Math Performance: Enhancing Cognitive Behavioral Intervention with Conjoint Behavioral Consultation

Partnering with families, school personnel, and community resources is an important step to supporting the child and family, especially when children might suffer from debilitating anxiety concerns. However, little research examines the impact of anxiety on math performance for young children participating in school-based interventions enhanced by family components. The following research questions were addressed in the study: 1a) Will a young child with elevated levels of anxiety show a decrease in anxiety symptoms with a Cognitive Behavioral framework intervention program for children? 1b) Will anxiety be reduced with the addition of a Conjoint Behavioral Consultation with the family and teacher? 2a) Will a young child show an increase in math performance after participation in a Cognitive Behavioral framework intervention program for children? 2b) Will math performance be increased with the addition of a Conjoint Behavioral Consultation with the family and teacher? A single-subject staggered baseline across situations intervention study addressed whether the Coping Cat, an evidenced-based child-focused intervention now widely used in schools and clinics to treat childhood anxiety, combined with family and school consultation will decrease elevated anxiety levels and improve math performance in an elementary-aged student. The objective was to support mental health development and math performance with an eight-year-old, female elementary student through a collaborative effort of stakeholders in the student's life. Baseline data was collected with repeated measures of anxiety and math performance, and was compared to two intervention phases: first, a child-focused intervention and second, a family and school consultation. The study tested the theory that the Cognitive Behavioral intervention and Conjoint Behavioral Consultation intervention will influence, positively, the anxiety levels and math performance for an elementary-aged student. Results indicate that the child participant with elevated levels of anxiety showed a reduction in symptoms with the introduction of a Cognitive Behavioral framework intervention when compared to her baseline data. The participant showed further reduction in symptoms across the school and home settings with the implementation of Conjoint Behavioral Consultation when compared to baseline and the first intervention phase. Math performance began to increase with the introduction of the Cognitive Behavioral intervention, and continued to improve with the implementation of the Conjoint Behavioral Consultation. Findings suggest that consultation should begin immediately when an intervention is implemented in order to enhance outcomes.

A Meta-analytic Review of Acceptance-Based Behavioral Interventions for the Treatment of Anxiety

The relative popularity of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) has grown in recent years, and inspired the development of contemporary acceptance-based treatment approaches. Acceptance-based therapies differ from traditional cognitive- behavior therapy (CBT) on pragmatic grounds, the import of which implicates the purpose of therapy. CBT utilizes exposure and cognitive change techniques primarily in service of symptom change outcomes; whereas, ACT utilizes exposure and acceptance for purposes of promoting psychological flexibility in the pursuit of personal values. The purpose of this meta-analytic study was to determine the relative efficacy of acceptance- based versus symptom-change behavioral approaches with anxiety disorders and to quantify this impact. A comprehensive literature search turned up 18 studies that met inclusion criteria for this analysis. An effect size was calculated using the standardized mean gain procedure for both the acceptance-based and symptom-change approaches, along with the waitlist control groups. The results demonstrate a large effect size for the acceptance-based approach (Weighted mean ES = .83) and a medium effect size for symptom-change approach (Weighted mean ES = .60). The waitlist control groups demonstrated a small effect size (Weighted mean ES = .24). Based on this review, it is suggested that graduate and internship programs in Clinical Psychology should promote evidence-based training in the use of acceptance-inspired behavioral therapies.

An Acceptance and Commitment Approach to Issues of Behavioral Health Care in Soldiers

For over a decade, the U.S. military has been engaged in two distinct, yet equally deadly conflicts: Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). There are many physical and psychological effects of war necessitating the activation and interventions of a myriad of behavioral health professionals. The purpose of the paper was to understand how and if contemporary military culture may work to support or hinder application of an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) approach to issues of psychological health among Soldiers. While the empirical research on efficacy with Soldiers is limited, a review of military culture revealed the promotion of rigid rule following, although effective in combat, influences the emotional control agenda and stigma while in garrison. However, empirical research demonstrating the clinical benefits and flexibility of ACT is rapidly emerging with civilian and Veteran populations. Suggested as a prevention technique utilized early in Soldier's training to increase psychological flexibility, ACT appears to demonstrate much promise in ameliorating the psychological consequences of war.

The Use of Humor in Therapy : Research-Based Training Recommendations

Despite its essential and universal nature, humor has historically received limited attention from the behavioral sciences, particularly as compared to other affective experiences like anger and sadness. Some authors (e.g., Bell & Malhi, 2009; Provine, 2000a; Roeckelein, 2002) suggest that this is because researchers have traditionally failed to "take humor seriously" and, according to O'Connell (cited in Roeckelein, 2002), have too often pursued its study in a piecemeal manner lacking scientific rigor, resulting in "no comprehensive network of facts about the development and purposes of humor in human existence" (p. 1). Roeckelein (2002) found not a single mention of humor, laughter, wit, comedy, or theories relating to these topics in introductory psychology textbooks published between 1930 and 1996.While research interest in the area has grown, especially over the last decade, it remains an elusive and nebulous topic, more likely to be examined in specialty psychology texts (e.g., social psychology and child development) than general ones (Martin, 2007; Roeckelein, 2002). Organizations (e.g., The International Society for Humor Studies; The Association for the Advancement of Therapeutic Humor), journals (e.g., Humor: International Journal of Humor Research) and internet phenomena such as "The Humor Project" (www.humorproiect.com) have made great strides in integrating information about humor from discreet fields such as the arts and humanities, biological and social sciences, education, and business management. Still, the therapeutic potential of humor remains a relatively young subject of serious scientific inquiry (Marci, Moran, & Orr, 2004; Sala, Krupat, & Roter, 2002). While humor does make appearances in self-help books and publications addressing clinical applications, these sources are much ...

Current status of research on school refusal

School refusal behavior refers to the avoidance of a child attending school and/or persistent difficulty staying in the classroom throughout the school day. Based on a review of the scientific literature, the aim of this study is to describe the current state of research on school refusal, differentiating between the findings and progress made in Spain from those achieved in the international field. For this purpose, the significance of this phenomenon, in addition to associated risk factors and variables, will be reviewed in the child and youth population. In turn, the commonly used assessment methods and most recommended treatment proposals, mainly based on cognitive behavioral therapy, are discussed. The results reveal several gaps and subjects for debate in some areas of knowledge about school refusal behavior, with differences being found between Spanish and international studies. In conclusion, future studies and challenges in this field are required.

Moderators of two Indicated Cognitive-Behavioral Depression Prevention Approaches for Adolescents in a School-Based Effectiveness Trial

Objective: Our aim was to identify moderators of the effects of a cognitive behavioral group-based prevention program (CB group) and CB bibliotherapy, relative to an educational brochure control condition and to one another, in a school-based effectiveness randomized controlled prevention trial. Method: 378 adolescents (M age ¼ 15.5, 68% female) with elevated depressive symptoms were randomized in one of three conditions and were assessed at pretest, posttest, and 6-month follow-up. We tested the moderating effect of three individual (baseline depressive symptoms, negative attributional style, substance use), three environmental (negative life events, parental support, peer support), and two sociodemographic (sex, age) characteristics. Results: Baseline depressive symptoms interacted with condition and time. Decomposition indicated that elevated baseline depressive symptoms amplified the effect of CB bibliotherapy at posttest (but not 6-month follow-up) relative to the control condition, but did not modify the effect of CB group relative to the control condition or relative to bibliotherapy. Specifically, CB bibliotherapy resulted in lower posttest depressive symptoms than the control condition in individuals with elevated, but not average or low baseline symptoms. We found no interaction effect for other putative moderators. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that bibliotherapy is effective only in participants who have elevated depressive symptoms at baseline. The fact that no study variable moderated the effects of CB group, which had a significant main effect in reducing depressive symptoms relative to the control condition, suggests that this indicated prevention intervention is effective for a wide range of adolescents.

Experimenter effects on behavioral test scores of eight inbred mouse strains under the influence of ethanol.

ight standard inbred mouse strains were evaluated for ethanol effects on a refined battery of behavioral tests in a study that was originally designed to assess the influence of rat odors in the colony on mouse behaviors. As part of the design of the study, two experimenters conducted the tests, and the study was carefully balanced so that equal numbers of mice in all groups and times of day were tested by each experimenter. A defect in airflow in the facility compromised the odor manipulation, and in fact the different odor exposure groups did not differ in their behaviors. The two experimenters, however, obtained markedly different results for three of the tests. Certain of the experimenter effects arose from the way they judged behaviors that were not automated and had to be rated by the experimenter, such as slips on the balance beam. Others were not evident prior to ethanol injection but had a major influence after the injection. For several measures, the experimenter effects were notably different for different inbred strains. Methods to evaluate and reduce the impact of experimenter effects in future research are discussed.

Moderators of two Indicated Cognitive-Behavioral Depression Prevention Approaches for Adolescents in a School-Based Effectiveness Trial

Objective: Our aim was to identify moderators of the effects of a cognitive behavioral group-based prevention program (CB group) and CB bibliotherapy, relative to an educational brochure control condition and to one another, in a school-based effectiveness randomized controlled prevention trial. Method: 378 adolescents (M age ¼ 15.5, 68% female) with elevated depressive symptoms were randomized in one of three conditions and were assessed at pretest, posttest, and 6-month follow-up. We tested the moderating effect of three individual (baseline depressive symptoms, negative attributional style, substance use), three environmental (negative life events, parental support, peer support), and two sociodemographic (sex, age) characteristics. Results: Baseline depressive symptoms interacted with condition and time. Decomposition indicated that elevated baseline depressive symptoms amplified the effect of CB bibliotherapy at posttest (but not 6-month follow-up) relative to the control condition, but did not modify the effect of CB group relative to the control condition or relative to bibliotherapy. Specifically, CB bibliotherapy resulted in lower posttest depressive symptoms than the control condition in individuals with elevated, but not average or low baseline symptoms. We found no interaction effect for other putative moderators. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that bibliotherapy is effective only in participants who have elevated depressive symptoms at baseline. The fact that no study variable moderated the effects of CB group, which had a significant main effect in reducing depressive symptoms relative to the control condition, suggests that this indicated prevention intervention is effective for a wide range of adolescents.