CARACTERÍSTICAS MORFOLÓGICAS E VARIABILIDADE GENÉTICA DE ARATICUM UTILIZANDO MARCADORES RAPD E MICROSSATÉLITES

RESUMONeste trabalho, objetivou-se avaliar a variabilidade genética da coleção de trabalho de acessos de araticum da Embrapa Cerrados e outros materiais próximos ao Distrito Federal, utilizando marcadores moleculares RAPD, microssatélites e análise de características morfológicas. Folhas de 18 acessos de araticum foram coletadas e utilizadas para a extração das amostras de DNA genômico, as quais foram amplificadas para obtenção de marcadores moleculares RAPD e microssatélites. Na análise morfológica, foram avaliadas 23 características dos acessos de araticum. As dissimilaridades genéticas entre os 18 genótipos de araticum evidenciaram a variabilidade genética dos acessos e as análises de agrupamento levaram à formação de três grupos de similaridade. Verificaram-se coeficientes de dissimilaridades genéticas baixos entre os materiais oriundos da Embrapa Cerrados e altos entre os outros materiais. Esses acessos são importantes fontes de variabilidade para o enriquecimento da atual coleção de trabalho da Embrapa Cerrados e para futuros estudos de caracterização morfológica e agronômica.

Combining conservative and variable markers to inferthe evolutionary history of Prunus subgen. Amygdalus s.l.under domestication

The genus Prunus L. is large and economically important. However, phylogenetic relationships within Prunus at low taxonomic level, particularly in the subgenus Amygdalus L. s.l., remain poorly investigated. This paper attempts to document the evolutionary history of Amygdalus s.l. and establishes a temporal framework, by assembling molecular data from conservative and variable molecular markers. The nuclear s6pdh gene in combination with the plastid trnSG spacer are analyzed with bayesian and maximum likelihood methods. Since previous phylogenetic analysis with these markers lacked resolution, we additionally analyzed 13 nuclear SSR loci with the δµ2 distance, followed by an unweighted pair group method using arithmetic averages algorithm. Our phylogenetic analysis with both sequence and SSR loci confirms the split between sections Amygdalus and Persica, comprising almonds and peaches, respectively. This result is in agreement with biogeographic data showing that each of the two sections is naturally distributed on each side of the Central Asian Massif chain. Using coalescent based estimations, divergence times between the two sections strongly varied when considering sequence data only or combined with SSR. The sequence-only based estimate (5 million years ago) was congruent with the Central Asian Massif orogeny and subsequent climate change. Given the low level of differentiation within the two sections using both marker types, the utility of combining microsatellites and data sequences to address phylogenetic relationships at low taxonomic level within Amygdalus is discussed. The recent evolutionary histories of almond and peach are discussed in view of the domestication processes that arose in these two phenotypically-diverging gene pools: almonds and peaches were domesticated from the Amygdalus s.s. and Persica sections, respectively. Such economically important crops may serve as good model to study divergent domestication process in close genetic pool.

Métodos de preparo de solo e sua influência na erosão hídrica e no acúmulo de biomassa da parte aérea de Eucaliptus Saligna em um cambissolo háplico da depressão central do Rio Grande do Sul

Este estudo buscou identificar e quantificar o efeito de métodos de preparo de solo e manejo de resíduos da colheita sobre a erosão hídrica e o desenvolvimento inicial da floresta de Eucalyptus saligna em um Cambissolo háplico. O ensaio foi instalado em área experimental da Aracruz Celulose e Papel S. A., localizada no Município de Arroio dos Ratos, na região fisiográfica denominada Depressão Central. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso com três repetições. Os tratamentos testados foram: subsolagem interrompida com resíduo (SIR), subsolagem contínua com resíduo (SCR) e subsolagem contínua sem resíduo (SSR), todos no sentido do declive, e coveamento mecânico (CME). A perda de solo do SSR foi 10 vezes maior que a dos demais tratamentos de subsolagem e 100 vezes maior em relação ao coveamento mecânico (CME). O escoamento superficial nos tratamentos com resíduo correspondeu a 1,6% do total precipitado e no tratamento subsolagem sem resíduo, 2,9% do total precipitado. O preparo mais intensivo do solo aumentou a erosão, porém favoreceu o crescimento inicial do eucalipto. A biomassa aérea do E. saligna 12 meses após o plantio foi maior nos tratamentos com maior volume de solo mobilizado.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND POLLEN FLOW IN PROGENIES OF Qualea grandiflora Mart., A TYPICAL SPECIES OF THE BRAZILIAN CERRADO

This study analyzed the reproductive system and the pollen dispersion pattern of Qualea grandiflora progenies. This is a typical species from the Brazilian Cerrado about which there are not too many studies from the genetics point of view. The study was conducted in an area of 2.2 hectares located in the Conservation Unit managed by the Forest Institute of the state of São Paulo, Brazil (Assis State Forest). Total genomic DNA of 300 seeds from 25 plants (12 seeds from each plant) was extracted and amplified using specific primers to obtain microsatellite markers. Results showed that selfing is frequent among adults and progenies, and the species reproduces by outcrossing between related and unrelated individuals (0.913). The single-locus outcrossing rate was 0.632, which indicates that mating between unrelated individuals is more frequent than between related plants. The selfing rate was low (0.087), that is, the species is allogamous and self-fertilization is reduced. About 35% of the plants in the progenies were full-sibs, and about 57%, half-sibs. Besides, about 8% of the progenies were selfing siblings. The genetic differentiation coefficient within progenies was 0.139, whereas the fixation rate was about 27%. The estimate of the effective size revealed that the genetic representativeness of descent was lower than expected in random mating progenies: The analyzed samples corresponded to only 13.2 individuals of an ideal panmictic population. In environmental recovery programs, seeds, preferably from different fruits, should be collected from 95 trees to preserve the genetic diversity of the species.

Sulfuric acid - glucose separation using mixed-recycle steady state recycling chromatography

Batch chromatography is a widely used separation technique in a variety of fields meeting difficult separations. Several technologies for improving the performance of chromatography have been studied, including mixed-recycle steady state recycling (MR-SSR) chromatography. Design of MR-SSR has been commonly limited on 100 % purity constraint cases and empirical work. In this study a predictive design method was used to optimize feed pulse size and design a number of experimental MR-SSR separations for a solution of 20 % sulfuric acid and 100 g/L glucose. The design was under target product fraction purities of 98.7 % for H2SO4 and 95 % for glucose. The experiments indicate a maximum of 59 % increase in sulfuric acid productivity and 82 % increase for glucose when compared to corresponding batch separation. Eluent consumption was lowered by approximately 50 % using recycling chromatography. Within this study the target purities and yields set in design were not completely met, and further optimization of the process is deemed necessary.

Liberialaisten naisten voimaantuminen aseellisessa konfliktissa sekä jälleenrakennusvaiheessa : Liberian toinen sisällissota (1999–2003)

Sukupuolten välinen tasa-arvo ja naisten aseman parantaminen on yksi Yhdistyneiden Kansakuntien (YK) vuosituhattavoitteista. Naisten asemaa aseellisissa konflikteissa parannettiin Yhdistyneiden Kansakuntien turvallisuusneuvoston päätöslauselmalla 1325 vuonna 2000. Se on yksi harvoista jäsenvaltioita sitovista päätöslauselmista. Suomi julkaisi oman naisten asemaan koskevan toimintasuunnitelmansa vuonna 2008, ja naisten aseman parantaminen liitettiin hallitusohjelmiin vuosina 2009 ja 2011. Rauhanturvaaminen on muuttunut pelkkien sotilaiden toiminnasta yhteistyöksi siviilien kanssa, ja täten se on saanut uuden muodon kokonaisvaltaisena kriisinhallinta-konseptina. Puolustusvoimat on joutunut ottamaan asian huomioon koulutuksessaan. Gender on yksi kriisinhallintajoukoille koulutettavista aiheista, jotta konfliktialueella kyetään saavuttamaan paremmin operaatiolle asetetut kokonaistavoitteet. Naiset muodostavat vähintään puolet jokaisesta yhteisöstä, mutta heidän äänensä ja tavoitteensa jäävät yleensä taka-alalle, kun kriisejä yritetään ratkaista. Liberia on tässä asiassa poikkeus. Se on yksi harvoista maista, missä naisten voimaantumisella on ollut merkittävä vaikutus konfliktin ratkaisuun. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää liberialaisten naisten voimaantumisen taustoja Liberian toisen sisällissodan aikana sekä vaikutuksia yhteiskunnan jälleenrakentamiseen liittyen. Tutkimuksen pääkysymys on: Mitkä tekijät liittyvät voimaantumiseen ja edesauttoivat liberialaisten naisten voimaantumista? Pääkysymyksestä johdetut alakysymykset ovat: 1. Millainen mahdollisuus liberialaisilla naisilla oli omaisuuteen ja omistajuuteen? 2. Mikä oli naisten asema Liberiassa? 3. Miten naiset kokivat sisällissodan ja mitä he oppivat sodasta ja jälleenrakennusvaiheesta? Tutkimus on tapaustutkimus jonka päämenetelmänä on aineistolähtöinen sisällönanalyysi. Aineistonkeruumenetelmällä on tekstianalyysia, jolla tarkastellaan tekstimuotoisen aineiston sisältämiä yhtäläisyyksiä ja eroavaisuuksia. Liberialaiset naiset onnistuivat voimaantumaan toisessa sisällissodassa järjestäytymiseen vaikuttavien tekijöiden, kuten kampanjoinnin, toimintasuunnitelman ja julkisen edustajiston, kautta. Rauhansopimuksen kirjoittamisen jälkeen tullut pienehkö suvantovaihe edesauttoi toiminnan voimallisemmassa kehittämisessä. Tämä on näkynyt useina valtion hallinnon projekteina, kuten naisten asemaa parantavan toimintasuunnitelman kirjoittamisena (Liberian National Action Plan, LNAP).

Otimização da utilização de marcadores moleculares microssatélites e sua aplicação em estudos com plantas daninhas

Apesar de existirem marcadores moleculares mais específicos, os marcadores microssatélites apresentam grande potencialidade de utilização na área de plantas daninhas devido à sua crescente disponibilização em outras espécies e à qualidade das informações proporcionadas. O uso convencional dos marcadores moleculares microssatélites demanda grande quantidade de trabalho e recursos financeiros. O objetivo deste trabalho foi descrever a técnica da cauda fluorescente como forma de otimização da utilização de marcadores moleculares microssatélites, utilizando como exemplo um estudo de identificação de híbridos entre arroz-vermelho e cultivado. Foram utilizadas como modelo plantas de arroz cultivado, arroz-vermelho e o híbrido originado do cruzamento artificial dessas plantas. A técnica da cauda fluorescente consiste na síntese do iniciador forward com a sequência desejada e a adição da sequência de um iniciador universal, que corresponde à chamada cauda. A detecção da amplificação é realizada em equipamento de eletroforese capilar automatizada, através da utilização de um iniciador universal sintetizado com fluoróforo. O sistema desenvolvido foi eficiente na identificação da hibridização entre arroz cultivado e vermelho e apresenta viabilidade de utilização, por exemplo, em estudos de fluxo gênico da resistência a herbicidas e de caracteres relacionados à adaptação diferencial entre essas plantas. A técnica da cauda fluorescente possibilitou o uso de diversos marcadores moleculares a partir de um único marcador fluorescente e viabilizou a realização das análises em multiplex. O aumento da disponibilidade e do conhecimento de técnicas moleculares pode proporcionar melhor elucidação em vários estudos relacionados a espécies de plantas daninhas que possuem pouca disponibilidade de marcadores moleculares específicos.

Advanced analysis and design methods for preparative chromatographic separation processes

Preparative liquid chromatography is one of the most selective separation techniques in the fine chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Several process concepts have been developed and applied for improving the performance of classical batch chromatography. The most powerful approaches include various single-column recycling schemes, counter-current and cross-current multi-column setups, and hybrid processes where chromatography is coupled with other unit operations such as crystallization, chemical reactor, and/or solvent removal unit. To fully utilize the potential of stand-alone and integrated chromatographic processes, efficient methods for selecting the best process alternative as well as optimal operating conditions are needed. In this thesis, a unified method is developed for analysis and design of the following singlecolumn fixed bed processes and corresponding cross-current schemes: (1) batch chromatography, (2) batch chromatography with an integrated solvent removal unit, (3) mixed-recycle steady state recycling chromatography (SSR), and (4) mixed-recycle steady state recycling chromatography with solvent removal from fresh feed, recycle fraction, or column feed (SSR–SR). The method is based on the equilibrium theory of chromatography with an assumption of negligible mass transfer resistance and axial dispersion. The design criteria are given in general, dimensionless form that is formally analogous to that applied widely in the so called triangle theory of counter-current multi-column chromatography. Analytical design equations are derived for binary systems that follow competitive Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. For this purpose, the existing analytic solution of the ideal model of chromatography for binary Langmuir mixtures is completed by deriving missing explicit equations for the height and location of the pure first component shock in the case of a small feed pulse. It is thus shown that the entire chromatographic cycle at the column outlet can be expressed in closed-form. The developed design method allows predicting the feasible range of operating parameters that lead to desired product purities. It can be applied for the calculation of first estimates of optimal operating conditions, the analysis of process robustness, and the early-stage evaluation of different process alternatives. The design method is utilized to analyse the possibility to enhance the performance of conventional SSR chromatography by integrating it with a solvent removal unit. It is shown that the amount of fresh feed processed during a chromatographic cycle and thus the productivity of SSR process can be improved by removing solvent. The maximum solvent removal capacity depends on the location of the solvent removal unit and the physical solvent removal constraints, such as solubility, viscosity, and/or osmotic pressure limits. Usually, the most flexible option is to remove solvent from the column feed. Applicability of the equilibrium design for real, non-ideal separation problems is evaluated by means of numerical simulations. Due to assumption of infinite column efficiency, the developed design method is most applicable for high performance systems where thermodynamic effects are predominant, while significant deviations are observed under highly non-ideal conditions. The findings based on the equilibrium theory are applied to develop a shortcut approach for the design of chromatographic separation processes under strongly non-ideal conditions with significant dispersive effects. The method is based on a simple procedure applied to a single conventional chromatogram. Applicability of the approach for the design of batch and counter-current simulated moving bed processes is evaluated with case studies. It is shown that the shortcut approach works the better the higher the column efficiency and the lower the purity constraints are.

Modifications of the sympathetic skin response in workers chronically exposed to lead

The long-term effects of low-level lead intoxication are not known. The sympathetic skin response (SSR) was evaluated in a group of 60 former workers of a primary lead smelter, located in Santo Amaro, BA, Brazil. The individuals participating in the study were submitted to a clinical-epidemiological evaluation including questions related to potential risk factors for intoxication, complaints related to peripheral nervous system (PNS) involvement, neurological clinical examination, and also to electromyography and nerve conduction studies and SSR evaluation. The sample consisted of 57 men and 3 women aged 34 to 69 years (mean ± SD: 46.8 ± 6.9). The neurophysiologic evaluation showed the presence of lumbosacral radiculopathy in one of the individuals (1.7%), axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathy in 2 (3.3%), and carpal tunnel syndrome in 6 (10%). SSR was abnormal or absent in 12 cases, representing 20% of the sample. More than half of the subjects (53.3%) reported a history of acute abdominal pain requiring hospitalization during the period of work at the plant. A history of acute palsy of radial and peroneal nerves was reported by about 16.7 and 8.3% of the individuals, respectively. Mean SSR amplitude did not differ significantly between patients presenting or not the various characteristics in the current neurological situation, except for diaphoresis. The results suggest that chronic lead intoxication induces PNS damage, particularly affecting unmyelinated small fibers. Further systematic study is needed to more precisely define the role of lead in inducing PNS injury.

Glukoosi-fruktoosisiirapin kromatografinen fraktiointi

Kuluttajamarkkinoilla on suuri kysyntä vähäkalorisille ruuille ja juomille. Näitä tuotteita voidaan valmistaa mm. korvaamalla makeuttimena perinteisesti käytetty sakkaroosi fruktoosilla joka on 73% makeampi ja sisältää vähemmän kaloreita kuin sakkaroosi. Koska fruktoosi on makeampaa kuin sakkaroosi, sitä tarvitaan vähemmän elintarvikkeissa saman makeusasteen saavuttamiseksi. Glukoosi-fruktoosisiirappia valmistetaan maissista tai sakkaroosista hydrolyysin avulla. Teollisuudessa glukoosi-fruktoosisiirapin fraktiointi tehdään käyttämällä jatkuvatoimista simuloitu liikkuva peti-prosessia (Simulated Moving Bed, SMB-prosessi). Tässä työssä tutkitaan voidaanko kierrätyskromatografiaa (Steady State Recycling , SSR-prosessi) käyttäen fraktioida glukoosi-fruktoosisiirappia tehokkaasti. Fruktoosi erotetaan glukoosista käyttämällä erotusmateriaalina vahvoja kationinvaihtohartseja kalsium-muodossa. Työssä tehtiin kirjallisuusselvitys, jonka perusteella valittiin sopiva erotusmateriaali ja koeolosuhteet. Kokeellisessa osassa glukoosille ja fruktoosille määritettiin adsorptioisotermit Frontal analysis -menetelmällä. Kokeellisesti määritettyihin isotermeihin sovitetut mallit validoitiin ja SSR-prosessi suunniteltiin panoserotuskokeiden avulla. SSR-prosessia mallinnettiin käyttäen MATLAB-ohjelmaa.

Enzymatic Synthesis, Recovery, and Purification of Ethyl β-ᴅ-glucopyranoside

A method to synthesize ethyl β-ᴅ-glucopyranoside (BEG) was searched. Feasibility of different ion exchange resins was examined to purify the product from the synthetic binary solution of BEG and glucose. The target was to produce at least 50 grams of 99 % pure BEG with a scaled up process. Another target was to transfer the batch process into steady-state recycle chromatography process (SSR). BEG was synthesized enzymatically with reverse hydrolysis utilizing β-glucosidase as a catalyst. 65 % of glucose reacted with ethanol into BEG during the synthesis. Different ion exchanger based resins were examined to separate BEG from glucose. Based on batch chromatography experiments the best adsorbent was chosen between styrene based strong acid cation exchange resins (SAC) and acryl based weak acid cation exchange resins (WAC). CA10GC WAC resin in Na+ form was chosen for the further separation studies. To produce greater amounts of the product the batch process was scaled up. The adsorption isotherms for the components were linear. The target purity was possible to reach already in batch without recycle with flowrate and injection size small enough. 99 % pure product was produced with scaled-up batch process. Batch process was transferred to SSR process utilizing the data from design pulse chromatograms and Matlab simulations. The optimal operating conditions for the system were determined. Batch and SSR separation results were compared and by using SSR 98 % pure products were gained with 40 % higher productivity and 40 % lower eluent consumption compared to batch process producing as pure products.

Marcadores moleculares microssatélites na avaliação de sementes de soja com variação na coloração do hilo

Marcadores microssatélite têm sido utilizados na determinação da pureza genética em programas de melhoramento e de produção de sementes, visando garantir a qualidade genética das sementes. Objetivou-se neste trabalho demonstrar, com auxílio de marcadores moleculares microssatélites, que variações na coloração do hilo em sementes de soja, muitas vezes não constituem variação genética. Foram avaliadas sementes de soja da cultivar CD 222 que apresenta sementes com hilo preto, e de duas linhagens (CD 02RV-8444 e CD 01RV-7618), as quais apresentam sementes com hilo marrom. As sementes com variações na coloração e tonalidade do hilo encontradas em cada genótipo foram separadas visualmente em grupos. O DNA de cada semente foi extraído e analisado com marcadores microssatélites em "bulks" contendo DNA de cinco sementes. As variações encontradas na coloração do hilo da cultivar CD 222 e da linhagem CD 02RV-8444 não foram devidas à variação genética, considerando 16 locos microssatélites. Para a linhagem CD 01RV-7618, os bulks de sementes com hilo marrom pigmentado de preto (B1), com hilo marrom mais intenso (B2) e intermediário (B3), foram considerados iguais. Para esta mesma linhagem foi detectada diferença no bulk de sementes com hilo marrom menos intenso (B4), com o primer Satt 070. Duas sementes deste bulk apresentaram o mesmo padrão molecular observado para os outros bulks, no mesmo loco. As demais sementes foram consideradas misturas. A utilização de marcadores microssatélites demonstra que variações na cor ou tonalidade do hilo da soja nem sempre correspondem à variação genética.

Dissimilaridade genética em população segregante de soja com variabilidade para caracteres morfológicos de semente

O tegumento das sementes de soja é uma estrutura relacionada à capacidade de germinação, vigor e longevidade das sementes. Entre genótipos de soja existe variabilidade genética quanto aos caracteres do tegumento da semente, a qual pode ser utilizada em programas de melhoramento genético. Diante do exposto, realizou-se esse estudo com os objetivos de: Analisar a dissimilaridade genética de população segregante de soja para caracteres morfológicos de sementes, por meio de marcadores morfológicos e marcadores moleculares (AFLP, SSR e RAPD); Estimar a correlação entre as matrizes de dissimilaridade obtidas por meio da utilização das diferentes classes de marcadores. A população utilizada no estudo originou-se do cruzamento entre dois genótipos contrastantes para os caracteres do tegumento, a cultivar CD 202 (genitor feminino), com tegumento amarelo, e o genótipo TP (genitor masculino), com tegumento preto. Na geração F3, foram avaliados os caracteres morfológicos de cores do tegumento e do hilo, presença de derramamento de hilo, cor da pubescência e cor da flor. Os marcadores moleculares foram obtidos através das técnicas de AFLP, SSR e RAPD. De acordo com os resultados, os marcadores AFLP são os mais eficientes em acessar a variabilidade genética da população estudada, proporcionando a formação de maior número de grupos em relação aos demais marcadores. Apenas a matriz de dissimilaridade e o dendrograma obtido através de marcadores moleculares AFLP avaliados isoladamente apresentam correlação positiva com a matriz de dissimilaridade e o dendograma obtido por avaliação dos dados morfológicos.

Vie des Pères et Passion de Jésus-Christ, en vers, Roman des Sept Sages, en prose, etc.

Contient : Vie des Pères, en vers ; Passion de Jésus-Christ, en vers ; Les Quinze signes du jugement dernier ; Roman des Sept Sages, en prose ; Fragment de comput, en vers français, chapitre « des Bissextes ». « Mais quant antrés suis en matire... » Cf. art. de M. P. Meyer, Bulletin des anciens textes, 1883, t. IX, p. 108-109 ; Poème moral sur la cité divine et les sept péchés capitaux, par « HENRIS » ; Chastie Musart ; « Aucunnes parties notaules a plusors maladies, estraites de fysique des quatre complexions. Li maistre dient que quatre complexions sont... — ... trop cras et li coulor blanche » ; « L'espistre qu'Aristotes envoia au roi Alixandre. Après mont de paroles qu'Aristotes dist au roi Alixandre il li dist cest ansignement. Dans rois, dist-il... — (Recettes diverses.) — ... Por savoir si le vins aigrez est bons metez en un pou sor .I. fer froit ou sor la terre, se il est bon il bondra » ; « Si comme dit freres Bertholomeis Anglois, de l'Ordre des Freres Menors, en livre des Proprietés, qu'il meismes fist, li cors d'umaine nature... — ... et premierement de sanc pur » ; Sermon, en français. « Omnis qui se exaltat humiliabitur, etc. Ces paroles sunt escrites en l'Esvangile et les dist nostres sires là où il preschoit... — ... et pour ce sormonta elle les apostres en fait et en hardiece »

Phylogénie moléculaire du genre Salix L. (Salicaceae) en Amérique du Nord

La culture de saules (Salix sp.) est une pratique courante en Europe et en Amérique du Nord pour produire de la biomasse végétale. Cependant, le développement d’outils moléculaires est très récent. De plus, la phylogénie des saules est incomplète. Il y a un manque d’information pour les programmes de sélection d'espèces indigènes et pour la compréhension de l’évolution du genre. Le genre Salix inclut 500 espèces réparties principalement dans les régions tempérées et boréo-arctique de l’hémisphère nord. Nous avons obtenu l’ensemble des espèces retrouvées naturellement en Amérique (121 indigènes et introduites). Dans un premier temps, nous avons développé de nouveaux outils moléculaires et méthodes : extraction d’ADN, marqueurs microsatellites et gènes nucléaires. Puis, nous avons séquencé deux gènes chloroplastiques (matK et rbcL) et la région ITS. Les analyses phylogénétiques ont été réalisées selon trois approches : parcimonie, maximum de vraisemblance et Bayésienne. L’arbre d’espèces obtenu a un fort support et divise le genre Salix en deux sous-genres, Salix et Vetrix. Seize espèces ont une position ambiguë. La diversité génétique du sous-genre Vetrix est plus faible. Une phylogénie moléculaire complète a été établie pour les espèces américaines. D’autres analyses et marqueurs sont nécessaires pour déterminer les relations phylogénétiques entre certaines espèces. Nous affirmons que le genre Salix est divisé en deux clades.