Governance of open content creation:a conceptualization and analysis of control and guiding mechanisms in the open content domain

The open content creation process has proven itself to be a powerful and influential way of developing text-based content, as demonstrated by the success of Wikipedia and related sites. Distributed individuals independently edit, revise, or refine content, thereby creating knowledge artifacts of considerable breadth and quality. Our study explores the mechanisms that control and guide the content creation process and develops an understanding of open content governance. The repertory grid method is employed to systematically capture the experiences of individuals involved in the open content creation process and to determine the relative importance of the diverse control and guiding mechanisms. Our findings illustrate the important control and guiding mechanisms and highlight the multifaceted nature of open content governance. A range of governance mechanisms is discussed with regard to the varied levels of formality, the different loci of authority, and the diverse interaction environments involved. Limitations and opportunities for future research are provided.

Control parameters in the batchwise production of synthetic resins

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Feasibility of automating the production of carbide-tipped milling cutters

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Application of computer control to the production of synthetic resins

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Commercial batchwise production of polyester resins.

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Optimum design and production of two-storey timber framed housing

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The production of a framework of competences for pharmacy practice in the European Union:the PHAR-QA project

Background and objectives: The goal of the PHAR-QA (Qualityassurance in European pharmacy education and training) project isthe production of a European framework of competences for pharmacypractice. This PHAR-QA framework (www.phar-qa.eu) will beEuropean and consultative i.e. it will be used for harmonization—butwill not to replace existing national QA systems.Methods: Using the proposals for competences produced by the previousPHARMINE(Pharmacy education in Europe; www.pharmine.eu) project, together with those of other sources, the authors produced a listof 68 personal and patient care competencies. Using internet surveytools the stakeholders—European pharmacy community (universitydepartment staff and students, community, hospital and industrialpharmacists, as well as pharmacists working in clinical biology andother branches, together with representatives of chambers and associations)—were invited to rank the proposals and add comments.Results and conclusions: Pharmacology and pharmacotherapy togetherwith competences such as ‘‘supply of appropriate medicinestaking into account dose, correct formulation, concentration, administrationroute and timing’’ ranked high. Other topics such as ‘‘currentknowledge of design, synthesis, isolation, characterisation and biologicalevaluation of active substances’’ ranked lower.Implications for practice: In the short term, it is anticipated that thissurvey will stimulate a productive discussion on pharmacy educationand practice by the various stakeholders. In the long term, thisframework could serve as a European model framework of competencesfor pharmacy practice.Acknowledgements: With the support of the Lifelong Learningprogramme of the European Union: 527194-LLP-1-2012-1-BEERASMUS-EMCR. This publication reflects the views only of theauthors; the Commission cannot be held responsible for any usewhich may be made of the information contained therein.

Abundance, biomass and secondary production of benthic megafauna on the Barents Sea shelf in 2008 and 2009

Megabenthos plays a major role in the overall energy flow on Arctic shelves, but information on megabenthic secondary production on large spatial scales is scarce. Here, we estimated for the first time megabenthic secondary production for the entire Barents Sea shelf by applying a species-based empirical model to an extensive dataset from the joint Norwegian? Russian ecosystem survey. Spatial patterns and relationships were analyzed within a GIS. The environmental drivers behind the observed production pattern were identified by applying an ordinary least squares regression model. Geographically weighted regression (GWR) was used to examine the varying relationship of secondary production and the environment on a shelfwide scale. Significantly higher megabenthic secondary production was found in the northeastern, seasonally ice-covered regions of the Barents Sea than in the permanently ice-free southwest. The environmental parameters that significantly relate to the observed pattern are bottom temperature and salinity, sea ice cover, new primary production, trawling pressure, and bottom current speed. The GWR proved to be a versatile tool for analyzing the regionally varying relationships of benthic secondary production and its environmental drivers (R² = 0.73). The observed pattern indicates tight pelagic? benthic coupling in the realm of the productive marginal ice zone. Ongoing decrease of winter sea ice extent and the associated poleward movement of the seasonal ice edge point towards a distinct decline of benthic secondary production in the northeastern Barents Sea in the future.

Co-production of bio-oil and propylene through the hydrothermal liquefaction of polyhydroxybutyrate producing cyanobacteria

A polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) producing cyanobacteria was converted through hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) into propylene and a bio-oil suitable for advanced biofuel production. HTL of model compounds demonstrated that in contrast to proteins and carbohydrates, no synergistic effects were detected when converting PHB in the presence of algae. Subsequently, Synechocystis cf. salina, which had accumulated 7.5wt% PHB was converted via HTL (15% dry weight loading, 340°C). The reaction gave an overall propylene yield of 2.6%, higher than that obtained from the model compounds, in addition to a bio-oil with a low nitrogen content of 4.6%. No propylene was recovered from the alternative non-PHB producing cyanobacterial strains screened, suggesting that PHB is the source of propylene. PHB producing microorganisms could therefore be used as a feedstock for a biorefinery to produce polypropylene and advanced biofuels, with the level of propylene being proportional to the accumulated amount of PHB.

Co-production of bio-oil and propylene through the hydrothermal liquefaction of polyhydroxybutyrate producing cyanobacteria

A polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) producing cyanobacteria was converted through hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) into propylene and a bio-oil suitable for advanced biofuel production. HTL of model compounds demonstrated that in contrast to proteins and carbohydrates, no synergistic effects were detected when converting PHB in the presence of algae. Subsequently, Synechocystis cf. salina, which had accumulated 7.5wt% PHB was converted via HTL (15% dry weight loading, 340°C). The reaction gave an overall propylene yield of 2.6%, higher than that obtained from the model compounds, in addition to a bio-oil with a low nitrogen content of 4.6%. No propylene was recovered from the alternative non-PHB producing cyanobacterial strains screened, suggesting that PHB is the source of propylene. PHB producing microorganisms could therefore be used as a feedstock for a biorefinery to produce polypropylene and advanced biofuels, with the level of propylene being proportional to the accumulated amount of PHB.

Assessing hydrothermal liquefaction for the production of bio-oil and enhanced metal recovery from microalgae cultivated on acid mine drainage

The hydrothermal liquefaction(HTL) of algal biomass is a promising route to viable second generation biofuels. In this investigation HTL was assessed for the valorisation of algae used in the remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD). Initially the HTL process was evaluated using Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) with additional metal sulphates to simulate metal remediation. Optimised conditions were then used to process a natural algal community (predominantly Chlamydomonas sp.) cultivated under two scenarios: high uptake and low uptake of metals from AMD. High metal concentrations appear to catalyse the conversion to bio-oil, and do not significantly affect the heteroatom content or higher heating value of the bio-oil produced. The associated metals were found to partition almost exclusively into the solid residue, favourable for potential metal recovery. High metal loadings also caused partitioning of phosphates from the aqueous phase to the solid phase, potentially compromising attempts to recycle process water as a growth supplement. HTL was therefore found to be a suitable method of processing algae used in AMD remediation, producing a crude oil suitable for upgrading into hydrocarbon fuels, an aqueous and gas stream suitable for supplementing the algal growth and the partitioning of most contaminant metals to the solid residue where they would be readily amenable for recovery and/or disposal.

Assessing hydrothermal liquefaction for the production of bio-oil and enhanced metal recovery from microalgae cultivated on acid mine drainage

The hydrothermal liquefaction(HTL) of algal biomass is a promising route to viable second generation biofuels. In this investigation HTL was assessed for the valorisation of algae used in the remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD). Initially the HTL process was evaluated using Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) with additional metal sulphates to simulate metal remediation. Optimised conditions were then used to process a natural algal community (predominantly Chlamydomonas sp.) cultivated under two scenarios: high uptake and low uptake of metals from AMD. High metal concentrations appear to catalyse the conversion to bio-oil, and do not significantly affect the heteroatom content or higher heating value of the bio-oil produced. The associated metals were found to partition almost exclusively into the solid residue, favourable for potential metal recovery. High metal loadings also caused partitioning of phosphates from the aqueous phase to the solid phase, potentially compromising attempts to recycle process water as a growth supplement. HTL was therefore found to be a suitable method of processing algae used in AMD remediation, producing a crude oil suitable for upgrading into hydrocarbon fuels, an aqueous and gas stream suitable for supplementing the algal growth and the partitioning of most contaminant metals to the solid residue where they would be readily amenable for recovery and/or disposal.

Biomass, quality traits and methane production of extensive grassland: biodiversity effects and sensor approaches

Energy policies around the world are mandating for a progressive increase in renewable energy production. Extensive grassland areas with low productivity and land use limitations have become target areas for sustainable energy production to avoid competition with food production on the limited available arable land resources and minimize further conversion of grassland into intensively managed energy cropping systems or abandonment. However, the high spatio-temporal variability in botanical composition and biochemical parameters is detrimental to reliable assessment of biomass yield and quality regarding anaerobic digestion. In an approach to assess the performance for predicting biomass using a multi-sensor combination including NIRS, ultra-sonic distance measurements and LAI-2000, biweekly sensor measurements were taken on a pure stand of reed canary grass (Phalaris aruninacea), a legume grass mixture and a diversity mixture with thirty-six species in an experimental extensive two cut management system. Different combinations of the sensor response values were used in multiple regression analysis to improve biomass predictions compared to exclusive sensors. Wavelength bands for sensor specific NDVI-type vegetation indices were selected from the hyperspectral data and evaluated for the biomass prediction as exclusive indices and in combination with LAI and ultra-sonic distance measurements. Ultrasonic sward height was the best to predict biomass in single sensor approaches (R² 0.73 – 0.76). The addition of LAI-2000 improved the prediction performance by up to 30% while NIRS barely improved the prediction performance. In an approach to evaluate broad based prediction of biochemical parameters relevant for anaerobic digestion using hyperspectral NIRS, spectroscopic measurements were taken on biomass from the Jena-Experiment plots in 2008 and 2009. Measurements were conducted on different conditions of the biomass including standing sward, hay and silage and different spectroscopic devices to simulate different preparation and measurement conditions along the process chain for biogas production. Best prediction results were acquired for all constituents at laboratory measurement conditions with dried and ground samples on a bench-top NIRS system (RPD > 3) with a coefficient of determination R2 < 0.9. The same biomass was further used in batch fermentation to analyse the impact of species richness and functional group composition on methane yields using whole crop digestion and pressfluid derived by the Integrated generation of solid Fuel and Biogas from Biomass (IFBB) procedure. Although species richness and functional group composition were largely insignificant, the presence of grasses and legumes in the mixtures were most determining factors influencing methane yields in whole crop digestion. High lignocellulose content and a high C/N ratio in grasses may have reduced the digestibility in the first cut material, excess nitrogen may have inhibited methane production in second cut legumes, while batch experiments proved superior specific methane yields of IFBB press fluids and showed that detrimental effects of the parent material were reduced by the technical treatment

Production of biodiesel through esterification catalysed by Ionic liquids

Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel that is produced from vegetable oils and animal fats. Currently, most biodiesel is made from oils, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst. Conventional catalysts is commonly used for catalyzing esterification of fatty acid to produce biodiesel. However, a better and greener method was found. An ionic liquid (IL) is a molten salt consisting of a cation and an anion, with low melting temperature. It offers a better solution than sulfuric acid, because it can be recycled and reused in subsequent runs after recovery steps. In this study, a Brønsted acidic IL, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulfate ([BMIM][HSO4]) was used as a catalyst in the esterification of oleic acid with methanol into biodiesel. The effect of different operation parameters such as methanol to oil molar ratio, amount of catalyst, reaction temperature, and reaction time were tested. The optimum conditions for esterification of oleic acid were identified as oleic acid/methanol molar ratio of 1/10, amount of catalyst 10 wt%, reaction time of 4 h, and reaction temperature of 90oC. FAME content of produced biodiesel was analyzed and confirmed using GC chromatography.

New Catalysts for the Renewable Production of Monomers for Bioplastics

Terephthalic acid (PTA) is one of the monomers used for the synthesis of the polyester, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), that is used for the large-scale manufacture of synthetic fibers and plastic bottles. PTA is largely produced from the liquid-phase oxidation of petroleum-derived p-xylene (PX). However, there are now ongoing worldwide efforts exploring alternative routes for producing PTA from renewable, biomass resources.

In this thesis, I present a new route to PTA starting from the biomass-derived platform chemical, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). This route utilizes new, selective Diels-Alder-dehydration reactions involving ethylene and is advantageous over the previously proposed Diels-Alder-dehydration route to PTA from HMF via 2,5-dimethylfuran (DMF) since the H₂ reduction of HMF to DMF is avoided. Specifically, oxidized derivatives of HMF are reacted as is, or after etherification-esterification with methanol, with ethylene over solid Lewis acid catalysts that do not contain strong Brønsted acids in order to synthesize intermediates of PTA and its equally important diester, dimethyl terephthalate (DMT). The partially oxidized HMF, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furoic acid (HMFA) is reacted with high pressure ethylene over a pure-silica molecular sieve catalyst containing framework tin (Sn-Beta) to produce the Diels-Alder-dehydration product, 4-(hydroxymethyl)benzoic acid (HMBA), with ~30% selectivity at ~20% yield. If HMFA is protected with methanol to form methyl 5-(methoxymethyl)furan-2-carboxylate (MMFC), MMFC can react with ethylene in the presence of a pure-silica molecular sieve containing framework zirconium (Zr-Beta) to produce methyl 4-(methoxymethyl)benzenecarboxylate (MMBC) with >70% selectivity at >20% yield. HMBA and MMBC can then be oxidized to produce PTA and DMT, respectively. When Lewis acid containing mesoporous silica (MCM-41) and amorphous silica, or Brønsted acid containing zeolites (Al-Beta), are used as catalysts, a significant decrease in selectivity/yield of the Diels-Alder-dehydration product is observed.

An investigation to elucidate the reaction network and side products in the conversion of MMFC to MMBC was performed, and the main side products are found to be methyl 4-formylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxylate and the ethylene Diels-Alder adduct of this cyclohexadiene. These products presumably form by a different dehydration pathway of the MMFC/ethylene Diels-Alder adduct and should be included when determining the overall selectivity to PTA or DMT since, like MMBC, these compounds are precursors to PTA or DMT.

Fundamental physical and chemical information on the ethylene Diels-Alder-dehydration reactions catalyzed by the Lewis acid-containing molecular sieves was obtained. Madon-Boudart experiments using Zr-Beta as catalyst show that the reaction rates are limited by chemical kinetics only (physical transport limitations are not present), all the Zr⁴⁺ centers are incorporated into the framework of the molecular sieve, and the whole molecular sieve crystal is accessible for catalysis. Apparent activation energies using Zr-Beta are low, suggesting that the overall activation energy of the system may be determined by a collection of terms and is not the true activation energy of a single chemical step.