Simulations of the SCHOLAR scramjet experiment

The DDES method is employed to investigate the complex physics involved in supersonic combustion and in particular in the SCHOLAR scramjet test case. The influence on computational results of prescribing turbulent fluctuations at the entrance to the combustion chamber is investigated. The interaction of shock waves, vortices, turbulence and combustion is studied and the existence of secondary vortices on the upper will of the combustor is proposed. © 2012 by Peter Cocks.

引起橡胶和马尾松木材蓝变的真菌—可可球二孢

<正> 可可球二泡(Botryodiplodia theobromae Pat.)早在1879年就被Cooke发现,目前,至少拥有48个异名,常见的异名是Diplodia theobromae(Pat.)Nowell,Diplodia natalensis PoleEvans,Lasiodiplodia theobromae(Pat.)Griff.＆ Maubl。Punithalingam和Sutton分别对该菌作过详细的评述。它广泛分布于热带、亚热带和温带。其寄主植物已知约500种,它不但引起植物病害,

中国白腐真菌小薄孔菌等四属系统学研究

对采集自我国不同地区、不同森林生态类型中的，以及现保存于中国科学院沈阳应用生态研究所东北生物标本馆（IFP）、中国科学院微生物研究所真菌标本馆（HMAS）等国内主要标本馆的非褶菌目木材白色腐朽菌，小薄孔菌属（Antrodiella Ryvarden & I. Johans.）、耙齿菌属（Irpex Fr.）、容氏菌属（Junghuhnia Corda. emend. Ryvarden）和齿耳属（Steccherinum Gray）四属真菌标本进行了全面系统的研究。按照现代分类学方法对四属白腐菌进行详细的描述和显微结构绘图，记载了每种的寄主、国内分布及研究标本，并对每种与其相似种的联系和区别进行了讨论。我国范围内共记录及描述小薄孔菌属（Antrodiella）15种，耙齿菌属（Irpex）2种，容氏菌属（Junghuhnia）7种，齿耳属（Steccherinum）12种。其中，共发现新种4个，分别是：柄生小薄孔菌Antrodiella stipitata H.S. Yuan & Y.C. Dai，柏生小薄孔菌Antrodiella thujae Y.C. Dai & H.S.Yuan，亚圆孢齿耳菌Steccherinum subglobosum H.S. Yuan & Y.C. Dai和尖囊齿耳菌Steccherinum subulatum H.S. Yuan & Y.C. Dai；发现中国新记录种4个，分别是：柔韧小薄孔菌Antrodiella duracina (Pat.) I. Lindblad & Ryvarden，日本容氏孔菌Junghuhnia japonica Núñez & Ryvarden，集刺齿耳菌Steccherinum aggregatum Hjortstam & Spooner和圆孢齿耳菌Steccherinum hydneum (Rick) Maas Geest.。对四属中的代表性种类和重要种类进行了rDNA ITS片段序列测定，利用系统发育分析软件PHYLIP3.6对Antrodiella属和Steccherinum属中的种类进行系统发育分析，并探讨了Antrodiella等上述四属间的系统发育关系。结果表明，与Irpex相比，Junghuhnia和Steccherinum 与Antrodiella具有更近的亲缘关系。Irpex和Steccherinum两个属虽然都具有齿状子实层体结构，但其亲缘关系较远。

华东地区木材腐朽菌多样性与资源研究

木材腐朽菌是生物多样性的重要组成部分，在森林生态系统中起着关键的降解还原作用；同时，木材腐朽菌还是重要的生物资源，与人类的生产与生活密切相关，具有重要的经济价值。因此，木腐菌一直是真菌研究的重点领域之一，然而过去对华东地区木腐菌的研究还非常薄弱，对华东地区木腐菌的种类和资源还缺乏清晰的认识。本文对华东地区不同森林生态类型中的木腐菌进行了广泛的调查采样，通过形态学、分子系统学和单孢融合交配实验，对华东地区的木腐菌多样性与资源进行了系统的研究，同时对具有重要经济意义和潜在应用价值的种类进行了菌种的分离保藏，并初步分析了华东地区木腐菌的区系特点。通过本论文的研究，提高了对华东地区木腐菌资源与多样性的认识，丰富了我国木材腐朽菌的种类，为控制林木病原菌、开发利用有益真菌资源提供了基本信息和科学依据。本论文的主要研究结论如下： 1．华东地区的木腐菌有3目13科92属270种，其中真菌新种6个，分别是：铁杉集毛孔菌Coltricia tsugicola Y.C. Dai & B.K. Cui，香榧嗜蓝孢孔菌Fomitiporia torreyae Y.C. Dai & B.K. Cui，拟囊状体大孔菌Megasporoporia cystidiolophora B.K. Cui & Y.C. Dai，菌索多年卧孔菌Perenniporia rhizomorpha B.K. Cui, Y.C. Dai & Decock，微小硬孔菌Rigidoporus minutus B.K. Cui & Y.C. Dai，浅黄芮氏孔菌Wrightoporia luteola B.K. Cui & Y.C. Dai；中国新记录种9个，分别是：紫多孢孔菌Abundisporus violaceus (Wakef.) Ryvarden，卡玛蜡孔菌Ceriporia camaresiana (Bourdot & Galzin) Bondartsev & Singer，撕裂蜡孔菌Ceriporia lacerata N. Maek., Suhara & R. Kondo，塔斯马尼亚集毛孔菌Coltriciella tasmanica (Cleland & Rodway) D.A. Reid，瑞克纤孔菌Inonotus rickii (Pat.) D.A. Reid，骨质多年卧孔菌Perenniporia minutissima (Yasuda) T. Hatt. & Ryvarden，灰硬孔菌Rigidoporus cinereus Núñez & Ryvarden，凹形栓孔菌Trametes ectypus (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) Gilb. & Ryvarden，变形干酪菌Tyromyces transformatus Núñez & Ryvarden。 2．利用分子系统学方法，确定了一些通过形态学研究难以鉴定或容易混淆的种类的分类地位，并对嗜蓝孢孔菌属、彩孔菌属和多年卧孔菌属进行了系统发育分析，发现木腐菌新种3个：Fomitiporia sp.、Hapalopilus sp. 和Perenniporia sp.。 3．华东地区的异担子菌为岛生异担子菌，并且存在两个生物种：T生物种和Y生物种。T生物种为腐生菌，Y生物种为兼性腐生菌，华东地区不存在多年异担子菌这一严重的森林病原菌。 4．华东地区的木腐菌种类丰富，组成复杂多样。优势科为多孔菌科，其次为锈革孔菌科，这两科的种类构成了华东地区木腐菌类区系的主体；优势属主要有多年卧孔菌属、多孔菌属、针层孔菌属和泊氏孔菌属。 4．华东地区木腐菌科的地理成分分为3类：热带亚热带成分，北温带成分和世界广布成分，以世界广布成分为主。属的地理成分分为5类：世界广布属，北温带分布属，热带–亚热带分布属，东亚–北美分布属，大洋洲–北温带分布属，以世界广布属和北温带分布属为主。种的地理成分分为8类：世界广布种，北温带分布成分，泛热带分布成分，亚–欧共有成分，东亚–北美共有成分，东亚–澳大利亚共有成分，东亚成分，中国特有种，以北温带分布种和世界广布种为主。 5．华东地区木腐菌的各主要区系成分均有分布，以世界广布成分和北温带成分为主，表现出明显的北温带性质，可能起源于北半球，华东地区木腐菌类的区系地理成分与其所处的地理位置、气候特点与植物区系的组成密切相关。此外，华东地区的中国特有种类也较为丰富，说明了华东地区木腐菌类的区系具有一定的独特性，也在一定程度上反映了华东地区生态环境条件的特殊性，而木腐菌的生长与环境条件和寄主树木种类有很大的关系。 6．华东地区的木腐菌资源非常丰富，林木病原菌有36种，其中新发现的病原菌有3种；野生的食用木腐菌有11种，野生的药用木腐菌64种，工业用木腐菌有28种。对其中的一种重要经济真菌——黄白多年卧孔菌进行了分离培养，找出了最佳生长条件：最适生长温度为25℃左右，相对最适pH值为5.5，相对最好的碳源为可溶性淀粉和葡萄糖，相对最好的氮源为酵母汁。

牦牛粪便对青藏高原东部高寒草甸土壤养分系统的影响

川西北高寒草甸位于青藏高原东部地区，是我国四大牧区之一，也是长江和黄河等江河源区的重要水源涵养功能区。近几十年来，大量牦牛粪便被牧民作为生物能源、肥料或者食用菌产业的原料而利用，为草原生态系统的养分平衡增加了生态风险。鉴于在青藏高原地区针对牦牛粪便的相关研究尚未见报道，本文从粪便和土壤养分相互变化趋势的角度出发，研究了粪便在夏秋两季的分解状况和粪便其下及其周围土壤的养分变化。通过此研究，将有助于了解牦牛粪便在自然状态下的分解速率以及粪便对土壤养分及土壤微生物生物量的影响，为粪便对草地土壤生态系统的贡献提供概念性认识，同时也为高寒草甸草地这种脆弱生态系统的可持续管理提供理论依据。 针对牦牛粪便自身养分释放及其对土壤在时间和空间尺度上的影响，本文通过模拟牛粪堆积，在不同时间和固定区域内对牛粪和土壤进行了夏秋两季的采样测定，分析了牛粪及土壤NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P、有机C、全N 和全P 含量随时间的变化趋势。得到如下结果： 1. 在研究区域内，牛粪对草地生态系统具有较强的养分（N、P）贡献能力。据初步统计，其估值大致为氮素699~932 kg ha-1，P 素为110~147 kg ha-1。牛粪（湿重、干重）在夏秋季节的分解速率具有较大差异，夏季显著快于秋季。夏季牛粪湿重、干重在2 个月左右之后分别降为初期的14%和24%，而秋季同期分别降为35%和52%。牛粪养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P、有机C、全N 和全P）的分解速率在夏季也要显著快于秋季。秋季经过2 个月左右的分解之后，牛粪以上含量分别降至初始态的32%、60%、36%、64%、58%、63%和43%，远高于夏季的同期水平。 2. 在不同季节，牛粪周围的土壤养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K 和无机P）含量变化随时间改变呈现相同的趋势。但是，牛粪周围不同远近下土壤养分随时间的动态变化幅度略有不同。粪下土壤养分含量随时间变化波动较大，距粪便越远，随时间变化的变幅越为平缓。总体来说，在夏季由于粪便分解较快，对土壤养分的持续作用时间不及秋季，秋季粪便分解变慢，表现出养分的缓释特征。其次，牛粪对粪下土壤影响的持续时间也长于对周围土壤的作用时间。 3. 粪便对土壤养分（NO3--N、NH4+-N、速效K、无机P）影响的范围在不同季节具有差异。夏季要高于秋季，但对周围土壤养分影响的持续时间低于秋季。在夏季短期内，牛粪对土壤NO3--N 和速效K 含量的影响范围能够超过30cm，而对NH4+-N 和无机P 的影响范围则介于10cm 和30cm 之间。在2 个月左右之后，牛粪对周围土壤养分的影响能力基本消失。在秋季，牛粪对周围土壤养分影响范围难以达到30cm 处。粪便在夏季对其下土壤和周围土壤的有机C、全N 和全P 含量并无显著影响，但在秋季能显著增加其下土壤有机C、全N 和全P 含量。 4. 牛粪在秋季对土壤SMB-C、SMB-N 和SMB-P 含量的影响能够持续2 个月以上，由于秋冬季节牛粪分解缓慢，因此推断这种效应持续时间至少能够1 年左右。另一方面，牛粪在秋季对土壤SMB-C、SMB-N 和SMB-P 含量的影响范围主要集中在其下土壤，而周围的影响效应并不明显。 The grassland on the eastern fringe of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau was one of the four greatest pasture zones in our country and the main water conservation function zones in the hesastream of Yangtse River and Huanghe river. Rencent years, lots of dung in this area was used as biological energy, fertilizer or material of fungoid growing, leading to high risk of nutrient banlance in grassland ecosystem. In view of the researches on the impact of yak dung in this area are relatively rare, the present study focused on the relationship of dung and soil nutrient transformation in sunmer and autumn, which could profoundly illuminate the mechanism of dung decomposition and the effect of dung on soil chemical properties and soil microbe biomass. The present study also contributed to a basic understand and provided scientific management in the high-frigid ecosystem. Decomposition of yak dung and its effect on soil chemical properties in eastern grassland of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau were determined. The study simulated the real dung pats, took dung and soil samples at different time and fixed-point in summer and autumn. The samples were analysed for NO3--N, NH4+-N, available K, inorganic P, total organic C (TOC), total N (TN), total P (TP). It was concluded that: 1. In study area, the yak dung supplied to ecosystem substantial nutrient. It is estimated that the N contribution of dung was approximately 699~932 kg ha-1, P contribution was approximately 110~147 kg ha-1. The rate of yak decomposition was more rapid in summer than autumn, the wet and dry weight of yak decreased to 14% and 24% respectively after 2 months when dung excreted in summer, with 35% and 52% in autumn. The content of NO3--N、NH4+-N、available K、inorganic P、TOC、TN and TP in dung decomposed more rapid in summer too. After 2 months when dung excreted in autumn, the content of above nutrient decreased to 32%、60%、36%、64%、58%、63% and 43% respectively，which were significantly higher than summer. 2. The content of NO3--N、NH4+-N、available K and inorganic P in soil around dung had the same transformation trend in each season, whereas it was distinguishing at different gradient of distance from dung, the nutrient in soil below dung had the most significant change while the more far from dung, the less change in soil. It was concluded that the yak dung had prolong impacts on soil in autumn compared with summer, besides, it aslo showed that the yak dung had protract effect on soil below dung compared with soil around dung. 3. The yak dung had expansive impact on soil around dung in summer whereas had relatively short effect compared with autumn. In short-term at summer, there was a significant increase about the content of NO3--N and available K around 30cm radius from dung pat while the content of NH4+-N and inorganic P between 10cm to 30cm. After 2 months, the impact almost disappeared. In autumn, the effect was hard to reach 30cm. The yak dung had no significant effects on the content of TOC、TN and TP in soil below or around dung in summer whereas there was a obvious increase in soil below dung pat in autumn. 4. The duration of effect of yak dung on soil microbial biomass(SMB) C、N and P was at least 2 months, maybe even more than 1 year. On the other hand, the impact of dung on SMB-C、SMB-N and SMB-P mainly acted on soil below dung while no obious effect on soil around dung.

贵州多孔菌研究Ⅰ(英文)

　对贵州省宽阔水自然保护区和黔灵山的多孔菌进行了初步研究,共发现多孔菌35种,其中中国新纪录种6个,贵州新记录种19个。3个分类单位只鉴定到属,它们明显是中国以前未报道的种类,或为新种。松生层孔菌Fomitopsispinicola(Sw :Fr )P Karst ,树舌灵芝Ganodermaapplanatum(pers.)Pat ,粗皮灵芝Ganodermatsunodae(Lloyd)Trott 和平丝硬孔菌Rigidoporuslineatus(Pers :Fr )Ryvarden为树木病原菌。

四川栲树心材腐朽病研究

根据野外调查,四川青城山和峨嵋山地区栲树心材腐朽病的病原菌为淡黄木层孔菌(Phellinusgilvus(Schwein:Fr.)Pat.),造成心材白色腐朽,最终导致受害树木枯死或风折。本文对此病害的症状进行了报道,并对采集的病原菌标本材料作了详细描述,对该菌的种内分化进行了探讨。

中国东北杨树上两种新多孔菌

本文报道了两种生于杨树上的多孔菌,杨生薄孔菌(AntrodialeucaenaY.C.Dai&Niemel )和西伯利亚毡被孔菌(Spongipellissibirica(Penzina&Ryvarden)Penzina&Kotir.)。根据所采集标本对其进行了详细描述。杨生薄孔菌的主要特征为子实体平伏反转,二系菌丝系统,生殖菌丝具锁状联合,担孢子圆柱形,造成杨树木材褐色腐朽。杨生薄孔菌目前只发现在中国东北,该种与垫状薄孔菌(Antrodiapulvinascens(Pilat)Niemel )和大孔薄孔菌Antrodiamacra(Sommerf.)Niemel 较类似,但垫状薄孔菌的担子果不形成真正的菌盖,其担孢子为椭圆形,菌丝组织中无结晶体存在。大孔薄孔菌也生长在杨树上,但该种只形成平伏的子实体,其孔口和担孢子均比杨生薄孔菌大。西伯利亚毡被孔菌目前只发现在中国东北和俄罗斯的西伯利亚地区,其主要特征为子实体盖状、白色、肉质,单系菌丝系统,生殖菌丝具锁状联合,担孢子椭圆形至近圆形,通常生长在杨树活立木上,造成木材白色腐朽。该种与同属的松软毡被孔菌Spongipellisspumea(Sower by:Fr.)Pat.很接近,但后者的孔口为圆形且完整,其担孢子比西伯利亚毡被孔菌的大。

中国纤孔菌属两新记录种

本文报道了中国纤孔菌属两个新记录种,分别为芮克纤孔菌Inonotus rickii (Pat.) D.A.Reid和杨生纤孔菌Inonotus plorans (Pat.) Bondartsev & Singer。芮克纤孔菌采于海南省保亭县热带植物园,生长在橡胶树上,杨生纤孔菌Inonotus plorans发现于中国西北地区的新疆,生长在杨树上,本文根据中国的材料对这两个种进行了详细描述和显微结构绘图。

Synthesis and evaluation of novel polysaccharide-Gd-DTPA compounds as contrast agent for MRI

Macromolecular conjugates of two kinds of natural polysaccharides, that from Panax quinquefolium linn (PQPS) and Ganoderma applanatum pat (GAPS), with gadolinium-diethylenetriaminepenta-acetic acid (Gd-DTPA) have been synthesized and characterized by means of FTIR, elementary analysis and ICP-AES. Their stability was investigated by competition study with Ca2+, EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) and DTPA. Polysaccharide-bound complexes exhibit T-1 relaxivities of 1.5-1.7 times that of Gd-DTPA in D2O at 25degreesC and 9.4T. MR imaging of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats showed remarkable enhancement in rat liver and kidney after i.v. injection of these two complexes: liver parenchyma 60.9+/-5.6%, 57.8+/-7.4% at 65-85 min; kidney 144.9+/-14.5%, 199.9+/-25.4% at 10-30 min for PQPS-GdDTPA, GAPS-Gd-DTPA at gadolinium dose of 0.083 and 0.082 mmol/kg, respectively. Our preliminary in vivo and in vitro study indicates that the two kinds of polysaccharide-bound complexes are potential tissue-specific contrast agents for MRI.

Alternative splicing of the FMR1 gene in human tissues of fetal and adult

To study the time- and tissue-specificity of alternative splicing of the FMR1 gene, we analyzed the alternative splicing pattern of the FMR1 gene in human tissues from adult and fetus using RT-PCR coupled with capillary electrophoresis. Seven alternative splicing variants of FMR1 were found in adult liver and lung. The major three alternative splicing variants of the FMR1 gene in all analyzed fetal tissues were same, though the number of minor isoforms and the relative abundance of major isoforms were different. The major difference of the alternative splicing pat tem between adult and fetus was in exon 12 and 17. The results suggest that the alternative splicing pattern of the FMR1 gene is non-tissue-specific in the same developmental stage and a developmental switch may be present.

Variability in north temperate dung beetle assemblages at different spatial and temporal scales

This study examined the spatial and temporal variability of dung beetle assemblages across a variety of scales e.g. from the between-pad scale (examining the effects of dung size and type) to larger spatial scales encompassing southern Ireland. Dung beetle assemblage structure as sampled by dung pad cohort samples and dung baited pitfall trapping were compared. Generally, the rank order of abundance of dung beetle species was significantly correlated between pitfall catches and cohort pad samples. Across different dung sizes, in both pitfall catches and cohort pad samples, the relative abundance of species was frequently significantly different, but the rank order of abundance of dung beetle was usually significantly correlated. Considerable variations in pitfall catches at temporal scales of a few days appeared to be closely related to weather conditions and rotational grazing. However, despite considerable variation in absolute abundances between consecutive days of sampling, assemblage structure typically remained very similar. The relationship between dung pad size and dung beetle colonisation was investigated. In field experiments in which pads of different sizes (0.25 L, 0.5 L, 1.0 L and 1.5 L) were artificially deposited, there was a positive relationship between pad size and both biomass and number of beetles colonising dung pads and pitfall traps. In addition, with one exception, the field experiments indicated a general positive relationship between dung pad size and biomass density (dung beetle biomass per unit dung volume). A laboratory experiment indicated that pat residence times of A. rufipes were significantly correlated with dung pad size. Investigation of naturally-deposited cow dung pads in the field also indicated that both larval numbers and densities were significantly correlated with dung pad size. These results were discussed in the context of theory related to aggregation and coexistence of species, and resource utilisation by organisms in ephemeral, patchy resources. The colonisation by dung beetles of dung types from native herbivores (sheep, horse and cow) was investigated in field experiments. There were significant differences between the dung types in the chemical parameters measured, and there were significant differences in abundances of dung beetles colonising the dung types. Sheep dung was typically the preferred dung type. Data from these field experiments, and from published literature, indicated that dung beetle species can display dung type preferences, in terms of comparisons of both absolute and relative abundances. In addition, data from laboratory experiments indicate that both Aphodius larval production and pat residence times tended to be higher in those dung types which were preferred by adult Aphodius in the colonisation experiments. Data from dung-baited pitfall trapping (from this and another study) at several sites (up to 180 km distant) and over a number of years (between 1991 and 1996) were used to investigate spatial and temporal variation in dung beetle assemblage structure and composition (Aphodius, Sphaeridium and Geotrupes) across a range of scales in southern Ireland. Species richness levels, species composition and rank order of abundances were very similar between the assemblages. The temporal variability between seasons within any year exceeded temporal variability between years. DCA ordinations indicated that there was a similar level of variability between assemblage structure from the between-field (~1km) to regional (~180 km) spatial scales, and between year (6 years) temporal scales. At the biogeographical spatial scale, analysis of data from the literature indicated that there was considerable variability at this scale, largely due to species turnover.

VERSATILITY IN THE MODERN PERFORMER: THREE DIVERSE OPERA ROLES

This dissertation project consisted of performances of three diverse operatic roles. The goal was to examine the challenges and benefits of performing diverse repertoire (baroque, classical, and romantic opera, in this case) and to observe how vocal and acting techniques might adjust to different styles and voice classifications. On December 3, 5, 11, and 13,2003, I performed a composite role in Fatal Song, directed by Leon Major, in the Robert & Arlene Kogod Theatre. This opera pastiche, premiered in 1996, contains spoken dialogue, and the music originates from famous eighteenth and nineteenth-century operas. I explored the challenges and benefits of playing three different, well-known opera characters within the same opera, performing four different languages within the same opera, and performing spoken dialogue in an opera. My roles in this pastiche of famous opera included Lucia from Lucia di Lammermoor by Gaetano Donizetti, Manon from Manon by Jules Massenet, and Pamina from Die ZauberJlote by W.A. Mozart. On January 28 and 29, 2005, I performed the role of Nice in Eurilla e Alcindo, a serenata by Antonio Vivaldi, in Homer Ulrich Recital Hall; musical direction by Joseph Gascho and stage direction by Kate Vetter Cain. I explored the challenges and benefits of preparing baroque ornamentation, singing without a conductor, performing an unknown work, staging a work that is not traditionally staged, singing with minimal sets and costumes, and singing with period instruments. On April 16,20, and 24,2005, I performed the role of Musetta in Giacomo Puccini's La BohBme, directed by Pat Diamond and conducted by Jeffrey Rink, in the Ina & Jack Kay Theatre. I examined the challenges and benefits of singing with a large orchestra of modem instruments, singing Puccini rubato and coordinating this with the conductor, and singing a role in one of the most well-known operas in today's repertoire. As a result of this investigation, I concluded that singing different styles, and singing outside one's voice classification, within reason, is beneficial. The knowledge, skill, confidence and insight I acquired by becoming more versatile benefited me as a performer and as a teacher.

Addressing time intervals

One of the fundamental questions regarding the temporal ontology is what is time composed of. While the traditional time structure is based on a set of points, a notion that has been prevalently adopted in classical physics and mathematics, it has also been noticed that intervals have been widely adopted for expre~sion of common sense temporal knowledge, especially in the domain of artificial intelligence. However, there has been a longstanding debate on how intervals should be addressed, leading to two different approaches to the treatment of intervals. In the first, intervals are addressed as derived objects constructed from points, e.g., as sets of points, or as pairs of points. In the second, intervals are taken as primitive themselves. This article provides a critical examination of these two approaches. By means of proposing a definition of intervals in terms of points and types, we shall demonstrate that, while the two different approaches have been viewed as rivals in the literature, they are actually reducible to logically equivalent expressions under some requisite interpretations, and therefore they can also be viewed as allies.