Genetic exchange in an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus results in increased rice growth and altered mycorrhiza-specific gene transcription.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are obligate symbionts with most terrestrial plants. They improve plant nutrition, particularly phosphate acquisition, and thus are able to improve plant growth. In exchange, the fungi obtain photosynthetically fixed carbon. AMF are coenocytic, meaning that many nuclei coexist in a common cytoplasm. Genetic exchange recently has been demonstrated in the AMF Glomus intraradices, allowing nuclei of different Glomus intraradices strains to mix. Such genetic exchange was shown previously to have negative effects on plant growth and to alter fungal colonization. However, no attempt was made to detect whether genetic exchange in AMF can alter plant gene expression and if this effect was time dependent. Here, we show that genetic exchange in AMF also can be beneficial for rice growth, and that symbiosis-specific gene transcription is altered by genetic exchange. Moreover, our results show that genetic exchange can change the dynamics of the colonization of the fungus in the plant. Our results demonstrate that the simple manipulation of the genetics of AMF can have important consequences for their symbiotic effects on plants such as rice, which is considered the most important crop in the world. Exploiting natural AMF genetic variation by generating novel AMF genotypes through genetic exchange is a potentially useful tool in the development of AMF inocula that are more beneficial for crop growth.

Attributes of irrigated rice and soil solution as affected by salinity levels of the water layer

In the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, flooded rice fields using Patos Lagoon as the source of water for irrigation are subject to be damaged by salinity, since this source is bound to the sea on its southern end. The sensitivity of rice is variable during plant development, being higher in the seedling and reproductive periods. However, there is not enough information about the behavior of plants under salt stress during the course of its development, especially in the vegetative stage. This study evaluated the effect of different levels of salinity of irrigation water on the salinity of soil solution over time and on some plant attributes, during the vegetative stage of rice. The study was conducted in a greenhouse, where seeds of the variety IRGA 424 were sown in pots and irrigated with water with electrical conductivity (ECi) levels of: 0.3, 0.75, 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 dS m-1; from the tillering initiation (V4) until the panicle initiation (PI). The evaluations made were the electrical conductiviy of soil solution (ECe), the dry biomass of plants and stems, tillering, height and the transpiration of plants. The ECe increased with the ECi over time, and was determined by water transpiration flux in pots. The ECe values at the end of the experiment were high and, in most cases, higher than the critical values for flooded rice. The growth attributes of rice were negatively affected from ECi of 2.0 dS m-1 and ECe of 4.0 dS m-1.

Rice grown in nutrient solution with doses of manganese and silicon

Although silicon is not recognized as a nutrient, it may benefit rice plants and may alleviate the Mn toxicity in some plant species. The dry matter yield (root, leaf, sheaths and leaf blade) and plant architecture (angle of leaf insertion and leaf arc) were evaluated in rice plants grown in nutrient solutions with three Mn doses, with and without Si addition. The treatments were arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial [with and without (2 mmol L-1) Si; three Mn doses (0.5; 2.5 and 10 µmol L-1)], in a randomized block design with 4 replications. The experimental unit was a 4 L plastic vase with 4 rice (Metica-1 cultivar) plants. Thirty nine days after keeping the seedlings in the nutrient solution the plant dry matter yield was determined; the angle of leaf insertion in the sheath and the leaf arc were measured; and the Si and Mn concentrations in roots, sheaths and leaves were determined. The analysis of variance (F test at 5 and 1 % levels) and the regression analysis (for testing plant response to Mn with the Si treatments) were performed. The Si added to the nutrient solution increased the dry matter yield of roots, sheaths and leaf blades and also decreased the angle of leaf blade insertion into the sheath and the foliar arc in the rice plant. Additionally, it ameliorated the rice plant architecture which allowed an increase in the dry matter yield. Similarly, the addition of Mn to the solution improved the architecture of the rice plants with gain in dry matter yield. As Si was added to the nutrient solution, the concentration of Mn in leaves decreased and in roots increased thus alleviating the toxic effects of Mn on the plants.

Avaliação da porosidade e placa férrica de raízes de arroz cultivado em hipoxia

A alta difusividade do oxigênio em diversos materiais dificulta a criação e, ou, manutenção de um ambiente livre de O2. As técnicas utilizadas são pouco eficientes na exclusão do O2 e, portanto, não expressam a condição do solo alagado. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram desenvolver um método para obtenção de raízes em condição de hipoxia e avaliar a placa férrica e a formação de aerênquima no arroz. Foi criada uma condição de hipoxia semelhante à do solo alagado em tanques de 50 L, explorando a capacidade de difusão do O2 por meio do vinil em contato com solo reduzido. Cada tanque preenchido com solo (Gleissolo háplico) recebeu cinco sacos de vinil e foi mantido alagado. Plantas dos genótipos IRGA 423 e IRGA 424 previamente cultivadas em campo foram coletadas, tendo as raízes cortadas junto ao colo, lavadas e um terço da lâmina foliar removido. Cada saco de vinil recebeu 12 plantas de cada genótipo e solução nutritiva. Após sete dias, as novas raízes adventícias formadas foram utilizadas na determinação da porosidade e a da placa férrica em segmentos de 0-2, 2-4 e 4-6 cm a partir da ponta da raiz. As raízes foram colocadas em contato com a solução de um solo em processo de redução por 4 h e a placa férrica determinada após a extração do Fe com HCl 0,5 mol L-1. A porosidade foi determinada pela aplicação de ciclos de vácuo, com auxílio de seringas. A diferença de peso antes e depois do tratamento com vácuo e entrada de água foi assumida como sendo a estimativa da magnitude do aerênquima ao longo da raiz. A eficácia do método foi testada com a produção de raízes adventícias em saco de vinil com aeração e hipoxia. A porosidade nas raízes foi maior em ambiente hipóxico, comparado à aeração. A porosidade foi maior na proximidade da base da planta e, à medida que a porosidade aumentou, houve aumento do conteúdo de Fe na superfície das raízes, indicando que a placa férrica pode servir como estimativa da formação de aerênquima no arroz. O método de obtenção de raízes foi eficiente em promover a eliminação de O2 do saco de vinil para estudar a formação do aerênquima.

Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from flood-irrigated rice by no incorporation of winter crop residues into the soil

Winter cover crops are sources of C and N in flooded rice production systems, but very little is known about the effect of crop residue management and quality on soil methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. This study was conducted in pots in a greenhouse to evaluate the influence of crop residue management (incorporated into the soil or left on the soil surface) and the type of cover-crop residues (ryegrass and serradella) on CH4 and N2O emissions from a flooded Albaqualf soil cultivated with rice (Oryza sativa L.). The closed chamber technique was used for air sampling and the CH4 and N2O concentrations were analyzed by gas chromatography. Soil solution was sampled at two soil depths (2 and 20 cm), simultaneously to air sampling, and the contents of dissolved organic C (DOC), NO3-, NH4+, Mn2+, and Fe2+ were analyzed. Methane and N2O emissions from the soil where crop residues had been left on the surface were lower than from soil with incorporated residues. The type of crop residue had no effect on the CH4 emissions, while higher N2O emissions were observed from serradella (leguminous) than from ryegrass, but only when the residues were left on the soil surface. The more intense soil reduction verified in the deeper soil layer (20 cm), as evidenced by higher contents of reduced metal species (Mn2+ and Fe2+), and the close relationship between CH4 emission and the DOC contents in the deeper layer indicated that the sub-surface layer was the main CH4 source of the flooded soil with incorporated crop residues. The adoption of management strategies in which crop residues are left on the soil surface is crucial to minimize soil CH4 and N2O emissions from irrigated rice fields. In these production systems, CH4 accounts for more than 90 % of the partial global warming potential (CH4+N2O) and, thus, should be the main focus of research.

Cadmium availability and accumulation by lettuce and rice

Among the toxic elements, Cd has received considerable attention in view of its association with a number of human health problems. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the Cd availability and accumulation in soil, transfer rate and toxicity in lettuce and rice plants grown in a Cd-contaminated Typic Hapludox. Two simultaneous greenhouse experiments with lettuce and rice test plants were conducted in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The treatments consisted of four Cd rates (CdCl2), 0.0; 1.3; 3.0 and 6.0 mg kg-1, based on the guidelines recommended by the Environmental Agency of the State of São Paulo, Brazil (Cetesb). Higher Cd rates increased extractable Cd (using Mehlich-3, Mehlich-1 and DTPA chemical extractants) and decreased lettuce and rice dry matter yields. However, no visual toxicity symptoms were observed in plants. Mehlich-1, Mehlich-3 and DTPA extractants were effective in predicting soil Cd availability as well as the Cd concentration and accumulation in plant parts. Cadmium concentration in rice remained below the threshold for human consumption established by Brazilian legislation. On the other hand, lettuce Cd concentration in edible parts exceeded the acceptable limit.

Attributes of irrigated rice as affected by soil sodicity and potassic fertilizer application

Soils of the coastal plains of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, are affected by salinization, which can hamper the establishment and development of crops in general, including rice. The application of high doses of KCl may aggravate the crop damage, due to the high saline content of this fertilizer. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of K fertilizer management on some properties of rice plant, grown in soils with different sodicity levels, and determine which attribute is best related to yield. The field study was conducted in four Albaqualfs with exchangeable Na percentages of 5.6, 9.0, 21 and 32 %. The management of KCl fertilizer consisted of the application of 90 kg ha-1 K2O broadcast, 90 kg ha-1 K2O in the row and 45 kg ha-1 K2O in the row + 45 kg ha-1 K2O at panicle initiation (PI). Plant density, dry matter evolution, height, SPAD (Soil Plant Analysis Development value indicating relative chlorophyll contents) index, tiller mass, 1,000-grain weight, panicle length and grain yield were evaluated. The plant density was damaged by application of K fertilizer in the row, especially at full dose (90 kg ha-1), at three sodicity levels, resulting in loss in biomass accumulation in later stages, affecting the crop yield, even at the lowest level of soil sodicity (5.6 %). All properties were correlated with yield; the highest positive correlation was found with plant density and shoot dry matter at full flowering, and a negative correlation with panicle length.

Absorção de nutrientes e crescimento do arroz com suprimento combinado de amônio e nitrato¹

O arroz é classificado como uma planta tolerante ao amônio (NH4+) devido à predominância desse íon nos solos alagados. Entretanto, nas regiões oxidadas do solo e da rizosfera do arroz pode haver a formação de nitrato (NO3-) e esta se tornar importante fonte de N para cultura. Este trabalho foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de diferentes proporções entre os íons NH4+ e NO3- no desenvolvimento do arroz em solução nutritiva. O experimento foi realizado em casa de vegetação no período de janeiro a fevereiro de 2008, em solução nutritiva com as seguintes proporções entre NH4+ e NO3-: 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 e 0:100 na concentração de 5,0 mmol L-1 de N. Foi cultivado o genótipo IRGA 417 e avaliado o rendimento de biomassa, os teores de N, K, Ca e Mg na biomassa e na seiva do xilema. Houve toxidez por NH4+ nas proporções de 100:0 e 75:25 e por NO3- nas proporções de 25:75 e 0:100. Na proporção de 50:50 as plantas se desenvolveram normalmente. O suprimento combinado de NH4+ e NO3- aumentou a produção de biomassa em relação ao NH4+ e ao NO3- supridos isoladamente. O NH 4+ na solução reduziu os teores de Ca e Mg na biomassa, porém não influenciou o teor de N e o de K. Já na seiva do xilema houve redução nos teores de K, Ca e Mg, indicando que o NH4+ influenciou na absorção desses cátions. A quantidade total absorvida de N, K, Mg e Ca foi maior com o suprimento combinado de NH4+ e NO3-, indicando que, além de promover melhor desenvolvimento das plantas de arroz, aumenta a eficiência de absorção de nutrientes em relação ao suprimento isolado das duas formas de N.

Nitrate role in basic cation leaching under no-till

Especially under no-tillage, subsuface soil acidity has been a problem, because it depends on base leaching, which has been associated with the presence of low molecular weigth organic acids and companion anions. The objective of this study was to evaluate exchangeable base cation leaching as affected by surface liming along with annual urea side-dressing of maize and upland rice. Treatments consisted of four lime rates (0, 1500, 3000, and 6000 kg ha-1) combined with four nitrogen rates (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg ha-1) applied to maize (Zea mays) and upland rice (Oryza sativa), in two consecutive years. Maize was planted in December, three months after liming. In September of the following year, pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was planted without fertilization and desiccated 86 days after plant emergence. Afterwards, upland rice was grown. Immediately after upland rice harvest, 18 months after surface liming, pH and N-NO3-, N-NH4+, K, Ca, and Mg levels were evaluated in soil samples taken from the layers 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm. Higher maize yields were obtained at higher N rates and 3000 kg ha-1 lime. Better results for upland rice and pearl millet yields were also obtained with this lime rate, irrespective of N levels. The vertical mobility of K, Ca and Mg was higher in the soil profiles with N fertilization. Surface liming increased pH in the upper soil layers causing intense nitrate production, which was leached along with the base cations.

Kinetic parameters of silicon uptake by rice cultivars

Silicon is considered an important chemical element for rice, because it can improve tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress. However, in many situations no positive effect of silicon was observed, probably due to genetic factors. The objective of this research was to monitor Si uptake kinetics and identify responses of rice cultivars in terms of Si uptake capacity and use. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse of the São Paulo State University (UNESP), Brazil. The experiment was arranged in a completely randomized, factorial design with three replications. that consisted of two rice cultivars and two Si levels. Kinetic parameters (Vmax, Km, and Cmin), root morphology variables, dry matter yield, Si accumulation and levels in shoots and roots, uptake efficiency, utilization efficiency, and root/shoot ratio were evaluated. Higher Si concentrations in the nutrient solution did not increase rice dry matter. The development of the low-affinity silicon uptake system of the rice cultivar 'Caiapó' was better than of 'Maravilha'.

Yield performance of upland rice cultivars at different rates and times of nitrogen application

Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for rice (Oryza sativa L) yields. This study aimed to evaluate the response of upland rice cultivars to N rate and application times in a randomized block design, in subdivided plots with four replications. The studied factors were five rice cultivars (BRS MG Curinga, BRS Monarca, BRS Pepita, BRS Primavera, and BRS Sertaneja), three application times (100 % at planting, 50 % at planting - 50 % at tillering and 100 % at tillering) and four N rates (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg ha-1). All cultivars responded to increased rates and different times of N application, especially BRS Primavera and BRS Sertaneja, which were the most productive when 50 % N rates were applied at sowing and 50 % at tillering. The response of cultivar BRS Monarca to N fertilization was best when 100 % of the fertilizer was applied at tillering.

Propriedades físicas do solo e produtividade de arroz irrigado em diferentes sistemas de manejo

O Estado do Rio Grande do Sul é o maior produtor de arroz irrigado do País, com destaque para a região da Fronteira Oeste. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar propriedades físicas do solo e a produtividade de arroz irrigado por inundação em plantio direto e convencional, em níveis de palha residual de arroz em plantio direto. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, com quatro experimentos e 10 repetições nos experimentos 1, 2 e 3 e seis no experimento 4. Os sistemas de manejo foram: experimento 1 (E1), sistema PD (E1PD) e sistema convencional com duas gradagens na camada de 0-7 cm + remaplan (E1C), em área de um ano de cultivo de arroz, após sete anos de pousio do cultivo de arroz e semeadura de azevém no inverno, com pastejo animal o ano todo; experimento 2 (E2), sistema PD (E2PD) e sistema convencional (E2C), após campo nativo; experimento 3 (E3), sistema PD (E3PD) e sistema convencional (E3C), após plantio direto de arroz irrigado durante dois anos em área de campo nativo; e no experimento 4 utilizaram-se quatro níveis de palha residual antes da semeadura do arroz. A produtividade de arroz irrigado por inundação não diferiu entre os sistemas plantio direto e convencional. A massa seca residual do arroz antes da semeadura não influenciou a produtividade de arroz irrigado por inundação.

Strategy of specification of management areas: rice grain yield as related to soil fertility

It is well-known nowadays that soil variability can influence crop yields. Therefore, to determine specific areas of soil management, we studied the Pearson and spatial correlations of rice grain yield with organic matter content and pH of an Oxisol (Typic Acrustox) under no- tillage, in the 2009/10 growing season, in Selvíria, State of Mato Grosso do Sul, in the Brazilian Cerrado (longitude 51º24' 21'' W, latitude 20º20' 56'' S). The upland rice cultivar IAC 202 was used as test plant. A geostatistical grid was installed for soil and plant data collection, with 120 sampling points in an area of 3.0 ha with a homogeneous slope of 0.055 m m-1. The properties rice grain yield and organic matter content, pH and potential acidity and aluminum content were analyzed in the 0-0.10 and 0.10-0.20 m soil layers. Spatially, two specific areas of agricultural land management were discriminated, differing in the value of organic matter and rice grain yield, respectively with fertilization at variable rates in the second zone, a substantial increase in agricultural productivity can be obtained. The organic matter content was confirmed as a good indicator of soil quality, when spatially correlated with rice grain yield.

Estratégias de manejo da palha de azevém para cultivo do arroz irrigado em sucessão

A adoção de sistemas de rotação e sucessão de culturas é um dos pré-requisitos fundamentais para sustentabilidade dos sistemas de produção agrícola. Diante disso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos de época de dessecação do azevém e de dose de adubação nitrogenada, aplicada na semeadura do arroz irrigado em sucessão, como estratégias para viabilizar o uso dessa sucessão em áreas de cultivo de arroz irrigado. O experimento foi conduzido no campo em dois anos agrícolas (2008/09 e 2009/10), em Cachoeirinha, RS, em um Gleissolo Háplico Ta distrófico típico. Utilizou-se o delineamento de blocos casualizados, em parcelas subdivididas, com três repetições. Os tratamentos foram constituídos de quatro épocas de dessecação do azevém (90, 70, 50 e 30 dias antes da semeadura do arroz, no primeiro ano; e 49, 34, 19 e 6, no segundo ano), de cinco sistemas de manejo da adubação nitrogenada no arroz irrigado, obtidos pela combinação de quatro doses de N na semeadura (0, 10, 20 e 40 kg ha-1) e de quatro doses de N em cobertura (150, 140, 130 e 110 kg ha-1), totalizando 150 kg ha-1, e de uma testemunha sem aplicação de N, durante todo o ciclo da cultura. A presença de palha de azevém com as plantas mantidas de pé não prejudica o estabelecimento inicial de plantas de arroz cultivado em sucessão. O rendimento de grãos de arroz irrigado cultivado em sucessão ao azevém não é influenciado pela época de dessecação de azevém e pela dose de N aplicada em semeadura.

Morfologia de raízes e cinética de absorção de potássio em genótipos de arroz irrigado

A eficiência de absorção de um nutriente pela planta é função de seus atributos morfológicos e fisiológicos, que podem variar entre cultivares da mesma espécie. Realizou-se um estudo para determinar os parâmetros morfológicos de raiz e os cinéticos de absorção de potássio (K), em genótipos de arroz irrigado. O experimento foi conduzido em vasos, em laboratório com luz artificial. Os tratamentos compreenderam 11 genótipos de arroz: cultivares Avaxi, BRS Atalanta, BRS Bojuru, BRS Fronteira e BRS Querência e as linhagens CNA 10754, CNA 10756, CNA 10757, BRA 1455, BRA 1024 e BRA 1073. As plantas foram cultivadas em solução nutritiva completa, renovada semanalmente, até o estádio vegetativo de sete folhas (V7), quando foram avaliados os parâmetros morfológicos de raiz (comprimento, raio médio, área radicular, massa úmida e massa seca). Os parâmetros cinéticos de absorção de K (influxo máximo -Imáx, constante de Michaelis-Mentem - Km, e concentração mínima na solução para absorção -Cmín) também foram estimados. A quantidade de K acumulada pelos genótipos de arroz irrigado esteve diretamente relacionada ao comprimento e à área radicular e ao crescimento da parte aérea, que foram distintos entre os genótipos. Os parâmetros cinéticos de absorção (Imáx, Km e Cmín) variaram entre os genótipos de arroz, distinguindo-os quanto à velocidade de absorção do nutriente por unidade de raiz. Considerando-se o influxo de K e a massa de matéria seca de raiz, os genótipos classificam-se em três grupos quanto ao potencial para aquisição do nutriente: maior potencial (BRS Atalanta, Avaxi, BRS Querência, BRA 1455 e BRA 1073); potencial intermediário (BRS Fronteira, BRA 1024 e CNA 10754); e menor potencial (CNA 10756, BRS Bojuru e CNA 10757).