How initial vocational education and training (IVET) teachers in Sweden perceive their prospects of being able to prepare upper secondary school pupils for a future occupation

Vocational teachers in Swedish upper secondary schools are a heterogeneous category of teachers, connected to different types of trade. These teachers represent a broad set of trade skills varying in content and character. In their teacher role, they continue to wear the clothes, speak the language, share the culture and remain mentally in their former professions. Still, it is central that they keep up this contact to be able to school the pupils into the environment of the trade in question, but also to help them to understand what skills a profession demands. However, the individual teacher also has to distance himself from the negative elements in the culture of the profession: patterns and habits that, for various reasons, have to be broken or changed. This paper draws attention to the ways in which a group of vocational teachers, who were participants in a project that aimed to train unauthorized vocational teachers, expressed their ambitions to prepare the pupils for a future professional career. When collecting information, we used the degree dissertations they produced and discussed in seminars, and informal dialogues. The result shows that it is important that the instruction location resembles a real working site as far as possible. These places are more or less realistic copies of a garage, a restaurant kitchen, a hairdressing salon, and so on, in order to give the pupils a realistic setting for instruction. However, the fact that these simulated workplaces lack the necessary support functions that exist in a company creates problems, problems which make a lot of extra work for the teachers. Vocational teachers also have to instruct the pupil in the experienced practitioner’s professional skills and working situation, but the pupil herself/himself must learn the job by doing it in practice. Some vocational upper secondary programs lack relevant course literature and the businesses give little support. This also makes extra work for the teachers. Moreover, the distance between the vocational programs and the trainee jobs was experienced as being difficult to overcome. One reason seems to be differences between businesses and differing preconditions between small and big companies’ abilities to take care of these pupils. The upper secondary school vocational programs also play a role in cementing existing gender roles, as well as perpetuating class-related patterns on the labour market.

När byn förlorade sin skola : - En fallstudie av avvecklingen av Backa skola

I denna rapport är avvecklingen av en mindre landsbygdsskola belägen i södra delen av Hedemora kommun i fokus. Frågan om avveckling av skolor är i många fall kopplad till en lands- och glesbygdsproblematik. Det viktigaste motivet är vanligen att när elevunderlaget är för litet blir det även för dyrt att driva skolan vidare. I det lilla samhället spelar skolan en viktig roll då den kan kopplas till hur t.ex. barnfamiljer väljer bostadsort, som i sin tur påverkar köpunderlaget i byns mataffär o.s.v. och får därmed även en symbolisk betydelse. I fallet Backa skola kom diskussionen om denna skulle avvecklas eller inte att bli en långdragen process som, med varierande intensitet, pågick under en följd av år. När det började stå klart för föräldrarna att det lutade åt ett beslut om en avveckling väcktes reaktioner och en delvis konfliktfylld process uppstod mellan föräldrar, politiker och förvaltningstjänstemän. Att konfliktfyllda processer uppstår vid avveckling av skolor inte är ovanligt vittnar bl.a. rapporten Skolan mitt i byn (Glesbygdsverket, 2009) om. Syftet är att studera avvecklingen av Backa skola. Följande frågeställningar formuleras: - Vilka uppfattningar kommer till uttryck om varför skolan avvecklades och hur hanterades avvecklingen enligt kommunpolitiker, förvaltnings-tjänstemän, lärare, elever och föräldrar? - Vilka effekter beskrivs att avvecklingen har gett upphov till och hade avvecklingen kunnat genomföras på andra sätt? Resultatet av den här studien bidrar till ökade kunskaper som kan nyttiggöras i andra liknande situationer. Studien är en kvalitativ fallstudie där datainsamlingen genomfördes under våren och försommaren 2010. Kommunens huvudargument för avvecklingen av Backa skola var att ekonomiska besparingar var nödvändiga. Detta vann föga gehör hos berörda föräldrar. En klar majoritet av föräldrarna (70 %) uppgav att det enligt deras uppfattning inte fanns några goda skäl till att skolan skulle avvecklas. Ett av föräldrarnas argument var att det var en landsbygdsskola och att det fanns ett egenvärde i att behålla sådana skolor. Föräldrarna var genomgående också mycket negativa till den information de hade fått inför avvecklingen. Nästan 80 procent uppgav att de ansåg att den information de fick var mycket dålig (63 %) eller dålig (15 %). Framför allt gällde det på vilket sätt som informationen gavs, att innehållet var bristfälligt, eller att ingen lyssnade på deras synpunkter. Kontakten mellan förvaltningstjänstemän och politiker som möter föräldrarna kan ses som att det kollektivt rationella möter det individuellt rationella, d.v.s. vad som är rationellt för kollektivet behöver inte vara detta för den enskilda individen. I praktiken kom striden att stå mellan en grupp mycket aktiva föräldrar och några av de ledande politikerna i utbildningsnämnden. Avvecklingen av en skola är inte bara en fråga för de elever och föräldrar som berörs, den berör också den personal som måste byta arbetsplats, eller i värsta fall riskerar att bli arbetslös. Personalen kunde inte på samma sätt som föräldrarna agera. De fick istället vänta och se vad som skulle komma att ske med deras framtida arbete. Det går att ha olika uppfattningar om hur det sätt som avvecklingen av Backa skola gick till och vad denna resulterade i för eleverna kan tolkas. De involverade aktörerna verkar emellertid vara eniga om att avvecklingsprocessen hade kunnat genomföras på ett bättre sätt, men många är ändå förvånansvärt nöjda med hur det hela till slut utföll för elevernas del, även om inte allt är frid och fröjd. Många av föräldrarna uppgav att de uppfattade att deras barns skolsituation, trots alla farhå-gor, i många fall har blivit lika bra och i en del fall t.o.m. bättre än tidigare. Av föräldrarna uppger 90 procent att deras barn trivs bra eller mycket bra med sina nya lärare. Samtalen med eleverna gav de en likartad bild. Trefjärdedelar av föräldrarna svarar att deras barn trivs bra eller mycket bra med sina kamrater, vilket också i det här fallet överensstämmer väl med den bild som samtalen med eleverna gav. Av föräldrarna uppger 70 procent att deras barn trivs bra eller mycket bra i sin nya skola. Vad som emellertid uppfattas ha blivit sämre är skolvägen där bara drygt 25 procent av föräldrarna framförde att det inte hade någon betydelse alls att skolvägen hade blivit längre. Det verkar ändå i det stora hela som att de berörda eleverna klarat sitt skolbyte bra. En av de erfarenheter som kan dras avseende vad som är viktigt att ta hänsyn till vid avvecklingen av en skola är att det är betydelsefullt att de berörda informeras och inte minst att praktiska frågor så långt som möjligt kan besvaras för att lugna oroliga föräldrar och elever. Överhuvudtaget att argumenten för avvecklingen är klara och tydliga och att de är möjliga att sakligt försvara samt att det finns långsiktiga planer. Även en kommuns geografiska struktur har betydelse för hur skolan kan organiseras. I en, som i det här fallet, kommun med en dominerande centralort, flera mindre samhällen och ett antal byar kan skolans verksamhetslokaler inte bara förläggas till de större befolkningsanhopningarna. Frågan är emellertid när resurserna inte räcker till, vilka det är som ska bli utan skola på det ställe de bor? Detta var egentligen vad frågan om avvecklingen av Backa skola ytterst handlade om, en politisk prioriteringsfråga. Politiska prioriteringsfrågor kan, i ett samhälle med representativ demokrati, i ett sociologiskt perspektiv förstås från vad som sker i ett enskilt fall genom att detta relateras till ett vidare sammanhang. Därmed kan kunskaperna från ett enskilt fall även användas för att bättre förstå andra liknande fall och ge vägledning om vad som kan tänkas vara fruktbara strategier för politikers och förvaltningstjänstemäns agerande.

Reflektioner runt följeforskarrollen i utvecklingsprojekt

Följeforskare kan stödja utvecklingsprojekt att nå uppsatta mål, men även bygga kunskap kring komplexa förändringsprocesser! Den slutsatsen drar vi utifrån våra erfarenheter från vår medverkan som följeforskare i olika utvecklingsprojekt. Följeforskningen presenteras i relation till de olika utvecklingsprojekten, vilka teorier vi använt, problem vi stött på samt hur arbetsmetoder och förhållningssätt fungerat. De utvecklingsprojekt vi valt är exempel med skilda karaktärer. Dessa benämns som: Bruket, Industrisamverkan, Kvinnors entreprenörskap samt Jämställdhet i arbetslivet.

Vad kan följeforskning bidra med?

Följeforskning uppfattas från en del håll att kunna ge nya möjligheter att bidra till att utveckla både teorier om utvecklingsprojekt, såväl som att bidra till en förbättrad praktik. Samtidigt hörs kritiska röster som framhåller följeforskningens kontrollerande funktion och risker för att det begränsar ett innovativt tänkande. Syftet med detta paper är att redovisa erfarenheter från fyra följeforskningsprojekt som används som exempel för att fokusera följande frågeställningar: Hur kan följeforskare: a) skapa och spela sina roller i relation till de förväntningar som finns? b) ge återkoppling för att öka projektens chanser att kunna nå uppsatta mål? c) bidra till en kunskapsutveckling om förändringsprocesser?

With an eye to academia or vocation? A draft to a research plan

There is a profound need to increase the quality and status of vocational education and train-ing (VET) and vocational education and training education – Teacher training (VTE-TT). As a consequence of several reforms the requirements of academic achievements in these different education systems are distinctly higher than before. These high ambitions cause problems and the actors in school and teacher education has got new challenges. Furthermore, vocational education teachers are supposed to prepare their pupils both to a pro-fessional career and to future academic studies. Accordingly, Vocational Education Teacher Trainers are supposed to prepare their students both to a career as vocational teachers and for further academic studies. This makes imprints in the field of VET and VTE-TT. The aim of this paper is to present a coming study about how actors in VET and VTE-TT think and act in relation to their changed assignment.

Rapport från projektet Multimodala uppgifter och bedömning i matematik : Video och kollaborativa samtal som metod vid lärares bedömning av elevers matematiska kunskaper

This research will discuss some experiences from a four year school research study. It was conducted in cooperation with teachers from four municipalities in Dalarna. The aim of the research was to examine teachers´ professional development when they participated in collaborative discussions based on video recordings and video edited material from specific lessons in their own practice. The study had two foci one was to investigate methods and tools that teachers can use to develop their ability to assess their students while working on multimodal tasks. The other was to examine how video can be used by teachers wanting to obtain knowledge about assessing students. The study is based on several theories about when teachers collaborate to create new knowledge. The first is the design theoretical approach – where visual ethnography and a semiotic approach contribute to problematize the use and mixture of different modes. A basic assumption of the framework here is that meanings are made and communicated in mathematics through a wide range of semiotic modes. By using video as an essential tool in the research the framework theories concerning visual ethnography, video documentation and individuals as reflective practitioners were also needed. The findings can be divided into the following themes: the use of tasks for assessment, collaborative discussion, equipment, ethical dilemmas. Collaborative discussions were evaluated as a meaningful way of sharing knowledge. The use of video recordings in association with these discussions raised important ethical issues. Working with the assessment framework was of great interest to the teachers but it took a lot of time from their ordinary work. In this way the project highlighted more general aspects of school development. The research also concerns teachers´ use of collaborative discussions in assessment work, multimodal tasks in mathematics and video as a research tool in general.

Möjligheternas Hus : Om ett projekt med en vision att skapa ett socialt företag för människor med psykiska funktionsnedsättningar

Bakgrunden till projektet Möjligheternas Hus var att det fanns ett behov av att utveckla rehabiliteringsinsatser för individer med psykiska funktionsnedsättningar som står långt från arbetsmarknaden, men även att de skulle erbjudas tillgång till en meningsfull daglig verksamhet. Rapporten syftar till att beskriva, problematisera och analysera hur projektet Möjligheternas Hus genomförts och vad det resulterade i. Den handlar om hur projektet har förmått fungera som ett verktyg för att skapa ett socialt företag för personer med psykiska funktionsnedsättningar. Rapporten behandlar även hur deltagarna har påverkats av sin medverkan i projektet, både vad avser deras livssituation i stort och deras möjligheter att bryta ett utanförskap samt hur projektet lyckades med att uppnå de mål som sattes upp. Deltagarna har startat ett socialt företag och de upplever att de kommit att må bättre. Flertalet uppger att de trivs bättre med livet, att de har ett rikare socialt liv, självförtroendet och självkänslan har stärkts och att det sociala företaget ger hopp för framtiden. En fråga som dock fortfarande är obesvarad är om sociala företag är ett framgångsrikt sätt att hjälpa och stödja individer som befinner i ett utanförskap att kunna lämna detta? Den här rapporten har inga svar på detta, med visar samtidigt att det är en fråga som behöver studeras ytterligare.

Machine translation and the disruption of foreign language learning activities

This study examines the question of how language teachers in a highly technology-friendly university environment view machine translation and the implications that this has for the personal learning environments of students. It brings an activity-theory perspective to the question, examining the ways that the introduction of new tools can disrupt the relationship between different elements in an activity system. This perspective opens up for an investigation of the ways that new tools have the potential to fundamentally alter traditional learning activities. In questionnaires and group discussions, respondents showed general agreement that although use of machine translation by students could be considered cheating, students are bound to use it anyway, and suggested that teachers focus on the kinds of skills students would need when using machine translation and design assignments and exams to practice and assess these skills. The results of the empirical study are used to reflect upon questions of what the roles of teachers and students are in a context where many of the skills that a person needs to be able to interact in a foreign language increasingly can be outsourced to laptops and smartphones.

Learning study i gymnasial yrkesutbildning : en fallstudie från ett hantverksprogram

Internationella tester av elevers kunskapsresultat har bidragit till att kraftigt öka intresset för hur elevers studieprestationer kan förbättras. En samstämmig forskning placerar lärares undervisning högt upp på listan av faktorer som är betydelsefulla för att förbättra elevers lärande. En metod som visat sig användbar för att utveckla lärares undervisningsförmåga är learning study som framför allt använts av lärare som undervisar elever i lägre åldrar. Vi visar i den här artikeln, med stöd av en fallstudie, att det även är möjligt att framgångsrikt använda learning study-metoden för att utveckla lärare i gymnasieskolans yrkesutbildning och deras förmåga att undervisa där ämnesinnehållet ofta avser tyst yrkeskunskap och icke-kognitiva förmågor.

Språkutvecklande arbetssätt i grundskolans årskurs 4-6 : En studie om translanguaging ur SVA-elevers perspektiv

Denna studie har genomförts på en F-6-skola med ca 350 elever, ungefär 30 % av eleverna har ett annat modersmål. Syftet med denna studie var att ur de tvåspråkiga elevernas perspektiv kartlägga hur den undersökta skolans lärare arbetar efter translanguaging-pedagogik. Att arbeta efter translanguaging-pedagogiken innebär att läraren ser på en elevs flerspråkighet som en tillgång i stället för ett hinder i klassrummet. Studiens syfte konkretiserades i följande frågeställningar:  Vilket förhållningssätt har lärarna till flerspråkighet i klassrummet ur andraspråkselevernas perspektiv?  Vad kännetecknar enligt andraspråkseleverna ett språkutvecklande arbetssätt?  Vilka av de metoder eller arbetssätt som lärarna använder anser andraspråkseleverna själva vara gynnsamma för deras förståelse och kunskapsutveckling i ämnesundervisning och andraspråksinlärning? Utifrån mina frågeställningar valde jag att använda mig av den kvalitativa forskningsmetoden fokusgruppmetoden. Studien genomfördes med hjälp av svenska som andraspråkläraren på skolan som gav mig tillgång till sina SVA-grupper på mellanstadiet. Det framkom i mina fokusgruppsintervjuer att man på skolan inte medvetet arbetar efter translanguaging-pedagogiken. Det upplevs bland annat att det inte är tillåtet att tala på sitt modersmål i klassrummet, det finns inget material i klassrummet som stödjer translanguaging-pedagogiken och lärarna uppmuntrar inte eleverna till att, vid diskussioner eller grupparbeten, använda sitt modersmål.

Blinda personers icke-verbala kommunikation : studier om kroppsspråk, icke-verbal samtalsreglering och icke-verbala uttryck

The purpose of this thesis is to deepen the understanding of grown-up blind people’s non-verbal communication, including body expressions and paralinguistic (voice) expressions. More specifically, the thesis includes the following three studies: Blind people’s different forms of body expressions, blind people’s non-verbal conversation regulation and blind people’s experience of their own non-verbal expressions. The focus has been on the blind participants’ competence and on their subjective perspectives. I have also compared congenitally and adventitiously blind in all of the studies. The approach is mainly phenomenological and the qualitative empirical phenomenological psychological method is the primary methodological source of inspiration. Fourteen blind persons (and also some sigthed persons) participated. They have no other obvious disability than the blindness and their ages vary between 18 and 54. Data in the first two studies consisted of video recordings and data in the last study consisted of interviews. The overall results can be summarized in the following three points: 1. There are (almost) only similarities between the congenitally blind and adventitiously blind persons concerning their paralinguistic expressions. 2. There are mainly similarities between the two groups with respect to the occurrences of different body expressive forms. 3. There are also some differences between the groups. For example, the congenitally blind persons seem to have a limited ability to use the body in an abstract and symbolic way and they often mentioned that they have been told that their body expressions deviate from sighted people’s norms. But the persons in both groups also struggle to see themselves as unique persons who express themselves on the basis of their conditions and their previous experiences.

Learning Democracy Together in School? : Student and Teacher Attitudes in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The principal aim of this study is to examine attitudes and values, through questionnaires, among students and teachers in the last grade of primary school (grade 8) regarding issues related to authoritarianism, democracy, human rights, children rights, conflict resolution and legislation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A second aim is to explore and analyze the role of the international community in the democratization and education processes in the light of globalization in this country through secondary sources of data, site visits and observations. Analysis of the student sample reveals suspicion towards democracy, especially when democracy was associated with politics and politicians. When the issue of democracy was de-contextualized from Bosnia and Herzegovina realities in the questionnaire, students showed more positive attitudes towards it. Students generally agreed with very strong authoritarian statements. High achieving students were more democratic, more socially responsible, more tolerant regarding attitudes towards religion, race and disabilities, and less authoritarian compared to low achievers. High achievers felt that they had influence over daily events, and were positive towards social and civil engagement. High achievers viewed politics negatively, but had high scores on the democracy scale. High achievers also agreed to a larger extent that it is acceptable to break the law. The more authoritarian students were somewhat more prone to respond that it is not acceptable to break the law. The major findings from the teacher sample show that teachers who agreed with non-peaceful mediation, and had a non-forgiving and rigid approach to interpersonal conflicts, also agreed with strong authoritarian statements and were less democratic. In general, teachers valued students who behave respectfully, have a good upbringing and are obedient. They were very concerned about the general status of education in society, which they felt was becoming marginalized. Teachers were not happy with the overloaded curricula and they showed an interest in more knowledge and skills to help children with traumatic war experiences. When asked about positive reforms, teachers were highly critical of, and dissatisfied with, the educational situation. Bosnia and Herzegovina is undergoing a transition from a state-planned economy and one party system to a market economy and a multi party system. During this transition, the country has become more involved in the globalization process than ever. Today the country is a semi-protectorate where international authorities intervene when necessary. The International community is attempting to introduce western democracy and some of the many complexities in this process are discussed in this study. Globalization processes imply contradictory demands and pressures on the education system. On one hand, economic liberalization has affected education policies —a closer alignment between education and economic competitiveness. On the other hand, there is a political and ideological globalization process underlying the importance of human rights, and the inclusiveness of education for all children. Students and teachers are caught between two opposing ideals — competition and cooperation.

Learning for well being : Studies using the International Adult Literacy Survey

This thesis is a collection of five independent but closely related studies. The overall purpose is to approach the analysis of learning outcomes from a perspective that combines three major elements, namely lifelonglifewide learning, human capital, and the benefits of learning. The approach is based on an interdisciplinary perspective of the human capital paradigm. It considers the multiple learning contexts that are responsible for the development of embodied potential – including formal, nonformal and informal learning – and the multiple outcomes – including knowledge, skills, economic, social and others– that result from learning. The studies also seek to examine the extent and relative influence of learning in different contexts on the formation of embodied potential and how in turn that affects economic and social well being. The first study combines the three major elements, lifelonglifewide learning, human capital, and the benefits of learning into one common conceptual framework. This study forms a common basis for the four empirical studies that follow. All four empirical studies use data from the International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) to investigate the relationships among the major elements of the conceptual framework presented in the first study. Study I. A conceptual framework for the analysis of learning outcomes This study brings together some key concepts and theories that are relevant for the analysis of learning outcomes. Many of the concepts and theories have emerged from varied disciplines including economics, educational psychology, cognitive science and sociology, to name only a few. Accordingly, some of the research questions inherent in the framework relate to different disciplinary perspectives. The primary purpose is to create a common basis for formulating and testing hypotheses as well as to interpret the findings in the empirical studies that follow. In particular, the framework facilitates the process of theorizing and hypothesizing on the relationships and processes concerning lifelong learning as well as their antecedents and consequences. Study II. Determinants of literacy proficiency: A lifelong-lifewide learning perspective This study investigates lifelong and lifewide processes of skill formation. In particular, it seeks to estimate the substitutability and complementarity effects of learning in multiple settings over the lifespan on literacy skill formation. This is done by investigating the predictive capacity of major determinants of literacy proficiency that are associated with a variety of learning contexts including school, home, work, community and leisure. An identical structural model based on previous research is fitted to the IALS data for 18 countries. The results show that even after accounting for all factors, education remains the most important predictor of literacy proficiency. In all countries, however, the total effect of education is significantly mediated through further learning occurring at work, at home and in the community. Therefore, the job and other literacy related factors complement education in predicting literacy proficiency. This result points to a virtual cycle of lifelong learning, particularly to how educational attainment influences other learning behaviours throughout life. In addition, results show that home background as measured by parents’ education is also a strong predictor of literacy proficiency, but in many countries this occurs only if a favourable home background is complemented with some post-secondary education. Study III. The effect of literacy proficiency on earnings: An aggregated occupational approach using the Canadian IALS data This study uses data from the Canadian Adult Literacy Survey to estimate the earnings return to literacy skills. The approach adapts a labour segmented view of the labour market by aggregating occupations into seven types, enabling the estimation of the variable impact of literacy proficiency on earnings, both within and between different types of occupations. This is done using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM). The method used to construct the aggregated occupational classification is based on analysis that considers the role of cognitive and other skills in relation to the nature of occupational tasks. Substantial premiums are found to be associated with some occupational types even after adjusting for within occupational differences in individual characteristics such as schooling, literacy proficiency, labour force experience and gender. Average years of schooling and average levels of literacy proficiency at the between level account for over two-thirds of the premiums. Within occupations, there are significant returns to schooling but they vary depending on the type of occupations. In contrast, the within occupational return of literacy proficiency is not necessarily significant. The latter depends on the type of occupation. Study IV: Determinants of economic and social outcomes from a lifewide learning perspective in Canada In this study the relationship between learning in different contexts, which span the lifewide learning dimension, and individual earnings on the one hand and community participation on the other are examined in separate but comparable models. Data from the Canadian Adult Literacy Survey are used to estimate structural models, which correspond closely to the common conceptual framework outlined in Study I. The findings suggest that the relationship between formal education and economic and social outcomes is complex with confounding effects. The results indicate that learning occurring in different contexts and for different reasons leads to different kinds of benefits. The latter finding suggests a potential trade-off between realizing economic and social benefits through learning that are taken for either job-related or personal-interest related reasons. Study V: The effects of learning on economic and social well being: A comparative analysis Using the same structural model as in Study IV, hypotheses are comparatively examined using the International Adult Literacy Survey data for Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The main finding from Study IV is confirmed for an additional five countries, namely that the effect of initial schooling on well being is more complex than a direct one and it is significantly mediated by subsequent learning. Additionally, findings suggest that people who devote more time to learning for job-related reasons than learning for personal-interest related reasons experience higher levels of economic well being. Moreover, devoting too much time to learning for personal-interest related reasons has a negative effect on earnings except in Denmark. But the more time people devote to learning for personal-interest related reasons tends to contribute to higher levels of social well being. These results again suggest a trade-off in learning for different reasons and in different contexts.

Vad man ska kunna och hur man ska vara : En studie om enhetschefers och vårdbiträdens yrkeskompetens inom äldreomsorgens särskilda boendeformer

The dissertation What to do and how to be reflects upon the professional skills needed by unit managers and nursing staff within the institutions of eldercare. Throughout the study, three conceptions are essential: formal education and training, professional skills, and individual competence. In order to understand the professional skills within its proper context, an activity perspective has been applied. The study is based on empirical materials, historical and present national and municipal documents, interviews with and observations of unit managers as well as questionnaires filled in by nursing staff members. A main result is the stress the respondents put on the importance of individual competence among unit managers and nursing staff members. “How to be” is more important than formal training and professional skills. To work with – and develop – individual competence therefore becomes momentous both to job activities and to education. The result shows a discrepancy between the way professional skills are discussed and the actual work performance. A lot of tasks carried out by unit managers and nursing stuff are never mentioned in connection with professional skills. The unit manager’s task is to lead both unit operations and staff work. Such responsibilities demand basic knowledge in social sciences, an overall understanding of the work activities from political management, job conditions and duties of the nursing staff. The professional skills given priority are those present in organisations and leadership. Problematic are economic and budget tasks which may sometimes cause unit managers to give up their economic responsibility, favouring client – directed over economy – directed care. The main task of the nursing staff is the care of elderly. It calls for social, caring, medical and housekeeping skills. For this one needs an upper secondary level education supplying the students with solid knowledge within social science as well as basic medicine and an overall understanding of the situation and needs of the elderly. Throughout the study, knowledge of the demented and of other mental disorders is emphasized as well as treatment of elderly persons suffering from those disorders. Units still have a long way to go before reaching the goal that every nursing staff member be given a formal education. Some municipalities already offer employees shorter nursing staff training. As to the rest, the educational development is neglected.