STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSFER OF APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE IMPLEMENTATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PROGRAMS IN TUNISIA

This dissertation focuses on Project HOPE, an American medical aid agency, and its work in Tunisia. More specifically this is a study of the implementation strategies of those HOPE sponsored projects and programs designed to solve the problems of high morbidity and infant mortality rates due to environmentally related diarrheal and enteric diseases. Several environmental health programs and projects developed in cooperation with Tunisian counterparts are described and analyzed. These include (1) a paramedical manpower training program; (2) a national hospital sanitation and infection control program; (3) a community sewage disposal project; (4) a well reconstruction project; and (5) a solid-waste disposal project for a hospital.^ After independence, Tunisia, like many developing countries, encountered several difficulties which hindered progress toward solving basic environmental health problems and prompted a request for aid. This study discusses the need for all who work in development programs to recognize and assess those difficulties or constraints which affect the program planning process, including those latent cultural and political constraints which not only exist within the host country but within the aid agency as well. For example, failure to recognize cultural differences may adversely affect the attitudes of the host staff towards their work and towards the aid agency and its task. These factors, therefore, play a significant role in influencing program development decisions and must be taken into account in order to maximize the probability of successful outcomes.^ In 1969 Project HOPE was asked by the Tunisian government to assist the Ministry of Health in solving its health manpower problems. HOPE responded with several programs, one of which concerned the training of public health nurses, sanitary technicians, and aids at Tunisia's school of public health in Nabeul. The outcome of that program as well as the strategies used in its development are analyzed. Also, certain questions are addressed such as, what should the indicators of success be, and when is the time right to phase out?^ Another HOPE program analyzed involved hospital sanitation and infection control. Certain generic aspects of basic hospital sanitation procedures were documented and presented in the form of a process model which was later used as a "microplan" in setting up similar programs in other Tunisian hospitals. In this study the details of the "microplan" are discussed. The development of a nation-wide program without any further need of external assistance illustrated the success of HOPE's implementation strategies.^ Finally, although it is known that the high incidence of enteric disease in developing countries is due to poor environmental sanitation and poor hygiene practices, efforts by aid agencies to correct these conditions have often resulted in failure. Project HOPE's strategy was to maximize limited resources by using a systems approach to program development and by becoming actively involved in the design and implementation of environmental health projects utilizing "appropriate" technology. Three innovative projects and their implementation strategies (including technical specifications) are described.^ It is advocated that if aid agencies are to make any progress in helping developing countries basic sanitation problems, they must take an interdisciplinary approach to progrm development and play an active role in helping counterparts seek and identify appropriate technologies which are socially and economically acceptable. ^

Diverging Development Paths of the Electronics Industry in Korea and Taiwan

This paper examines the process and mechanism of economic development in the Republic of Korea and Taiwan through a comparative analysis of the electronics industry in each country. The paper will show that in its initial stage of development, the electronics industry in both economies had the same type of dual structure: a domestic demand sector based on the protected domestic market, and an export sector intended to capitalize on low-wage labor for the international market. However, this dual structure in the two economies faded away after the mid-1970s as their respective indigenous export-oriented enterprises began to develop. But the primary industrial players in each economy were very different. In Korea they were comprehensive electronics manufacturers affiliated with chaebols, and in Taiwan they were small and medium-size enterprises. Differences in the two economies' development mechanisms have brought about this divergence in development paths. In Korea this mechanism has been characterized by the government's positive role and the chaebol's readiness to react to the government's leadership. In Taiwan the development mechanism has been based on the private sector independent from the government. As an extension of such diverged development paths, ICs and personal computers showed spectacular growth in Korea and Taiwan after the 1980s. The development of ICs in Korea was primarily the result of a decisive role played by the chaebol's sizable financial resources, while the competitiveness in personal computers largely reflected the agility and flexibility of Taiwanese small and medium-size enterprises.

Specific requirement for CD3ɛ in T cell development

T cell antigen receptor (TCR) and pre-TCR complexes are composed of clonotypic heterodimers in association with dimers of signal transducing invariant subunits (CD3γ, -δ, -ɛ, and ζ). The role of individual invariant subunits in T cell development has been investigated by generating gene-specific mutations in mice. Mutation of CD3γ, -δ, or ζ results in an incomplete block in development, characterized by reduced numbers of mature T cells that express low levels of TCR. In contrast, mature T cells are absent from CD3ɛ−/− mice, and thymocyte development is arrested at the early CD4−CD8− stage. Although these results suggest that CD3ɛ is essential for pre-TCR and TCR expression/function, their interpretation is complicated by the fact that expression of the CD3γ and CD3δ genes also is reduced in CD3ɛ−/− mice. Thus, it is unclear whether the phenotype of CD3ɛ−/− mice reflects the collective effects of CD3γ, -δ, and -ɛ deficiency. By removing the selectable marker (PGK-NEO) from the targeted CD3ɛ gene via Cre/loxP-mediated recombination, we generated mice that lack CD3ɛ yet retain normal expression of the closely linked CD3γ and CD3δ genes. These (CD3ɛΔ/Δ) mice exhibited an early arrest in T cell development, similar to that of CD3ɛ−/− mice. Moreover, the developmental defect could be rescued by expression of a CD3ɛ transgene. These results identify an essential role for CD3ɛ in T cell development not shared by the CD3γ, CD3δ, or ζ-family proteins and provide further evidence that PGK-NEO can influence the expression of genes in its proximity.

Glutathione synthesis is essential for mouse development but not for cell growth in culture

Glutathione (GSH) is a major source of reducing equivalents in mammalian cells. To examine the role of GSH synthesis in development and cell growth, we generated mice deficient in GSH by a targeted disruption of the heavy subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γGCS-HStm1), an essential enzyme in GSH synthesis. Embryos homozygous for γGCS-HStm1 fail to gastrulate, do not form mesoderm, develop distal apoptosis, and die before day 8.5. Lethality results from apoptotic cell death rather than reduced cell proliferation. We also isolated cell lines from homozygous mutant blastocysts in medium containing GSH. These cells also grow indefinitely in GSH-free medium supplemented with N-acetylcysteine and have undetectable levels of GSH; further, they show no changes in mitochondrial morphology as judged by electron microscopy. These data demonstrate that GSH is required for mammalian development but dispensable in cell culture and that the functions of GSH, not GSH itself, are essential for cell growth.

Mitochondrial Single-stranded DNA-binding Protein Is Required for Mitochondrial DNA Replication and Development in Drosophila melanogaster

The discovery that several inherited human diseases are caused by mtDNA depletion has led to an increased interest in the replication and maintenance of mtDNA. We have isolated a new mutant in the lopo (low power) gene from Drosophila melanogaster affecting the mitochondrial single-stranded DNA-binding protein (mtSSB), which is one of the key components in mtDNA replication and maintenance. lopo1 mutants die late in the third instar before completion of metamorphosis because of a failure in cell proliferation. Molecular, histochemical, and physiological experiments show a drastic decrease in mtDNA content that is coupled with the loss of respiration in these mutants. However, the number and morphology of mitochondria are not greatly affected. Immunocytochemical analysis shows that mtSSB is expressed in all tissues but is highly enriched in proliferating tissues and in the developing oocyte. lopo1 is the first mtSSB mutant in higher eukaryotes, and its analysis demonstrates the essential function of this gene in development, providing an excellent model to study mitochondrial biogenesis in animals.

Layer-specific programs of development in neocortical projection neurons.

How are long-range axonal projections from the cerebral cortex orchestrated during development? By using both passively and actively transported axonal tracers in fetal and postnatal ferrets, we have analyzed the development of projections from the cortex to a number of thalamic nuclei. We report that the projections of a cortical area to its corresponding thalamic nuclei follow highly cell-specific programs of development. Axons from cells in the deepest layers of the cerebral cortex (layer 6 and superficial subplate neurons) appear to grow very slowly and be delayed for several weeks in the cerebral white matter, reaching the thalamus over a protracted period. Neurons of layer 5, on the other hand, develop their projections much faster; despite being born after the neurons of deeper layers, layer 5 neurons are the first to extend their axons out of the cortical hemisphere and innervate the thalamus. Layer 5 projections are massive in the first postnatal weeks but may become partly eliminated later in development, being overtaken in number by layer 6 cells that constitute the major corticothalamic projection by adulthood. Layer 5 projections are area-specific from the outset and arise as collateral branches of axons directed to the brainstem and spinal cord. Our findings show that the early development of corticofugal connections is determined not by the sequence of cortical neurogenesis but by developmental programs specific for each type of projection neuron. In addition, they demonstrate that in most thalamic nuclei, layer 5 neurons (and not subplate or layer 6 neurons) establish the first descending projections from the cerebral cortex.

Distribution of parthenogenetic cells in the mouse brain and their influence on brain development and behavior.

A systematic analysis of parthenogenetic (PG) cell fate within the central nervous system (CNS) was made throughout fetal development and neonatal and adult life. Chimeras were made between PG embryos carrying a ubiquitously expressed lacZ transgene and normal fertilized embryos. After detailed histological analysis, we find that the developmental potential of PG cells is spatially restricted to certain parts of the brain. PG cells are prevalent in telencephalic structures and are largely excluded from diencephalic structures, especially the hypothalamus. These spatial restrictions are established early in development. Behavioral studies with chimeras identified an increase in male aggression when the proportion of PG cells in the brain was high. These studies demonstrate that imprinted genes play key roles in development of the CNS and may be involved in behavior.

Improving the role of equity crowdfunding in Europe's capital markets. Bruegel Policy Contribution Issue 2014/09, August 2014

Crowdfunding is a growing phenomenon that encompasses several different models of financing for business or other ventures. Despite the hype, equity crowdfunding is still the smallest part of the crowdfunding market. Because of its legal framework, Europe has been at the forefront of equity crowdfunding market development. Equity crowdfunding is more complex than other forms of crowdfunding and requires proper checks and balances if it is to provide a viable channel for financial intermediation in the seed and early-stage market in Europe. It is important to explore this new channel of funding for young and innovative firms given the critical role these start-ups can play job creation and economic growth in Europe. We assess the potential role of equity crowdfunding in the overall seed and early-stage financing market and highlight the potential risks of equity crowdfunding. We describe the current state of play in this nascent industry, considering both the innovations introduced by market operators and existing regulation. Currently in Europe there is a patchwork of national legal frameworks related to equity crowdfunding and this should be addressed in a harmonised way.

Development co-operation made in Germany. OSW REPORT 2015-07-29

For years, development policy has attracted the attention of public opinion in Germany and been strongly supported by the public. It takes the form of an agreement between equal partners who draw mutual benefits from this co-operation. German development policy is structured to support the German economy. This policy and the state’s significant share in development projects reduces the investment risk incurred by German entrepreneurs who engage their assets in developing countries. Furthermore, bilateral co-operation successfully builds the made in Germany brand as regards both development policy and further economic co-operation, making the beneficiaries of development co-operation indirectly dependent on German goods and services. Development co-operation, along with diplomacy and defence policy, is the third pillar of German foreign policy. In this context it plays above all a preventive function in the case of international conflicts. Investing funds as part of development projects in areas affected by military conflicts or facing a high risk of military conflict is viewed by Germany as its contribution to overcoming crises or removing their causes. This goes hand in hand with the conviction that international conflicts, wherever they appear, adversely affect the German economy, which heavily relies on exports.

Expression of the tudor-related gene Tdrd5 during development of the male germline in mice

Homologues of Drosophila germ cell determinant genes such as vasa, nanos and tudor have recently been implicated in development of the male germline in mice. In the present study, the mouse gene encoding Tudor domain containing protein 5 (TDRD5) was isolated from a 12.5-13.5 days post coitum (dpc) male-enriched subtracted cDNA library. Whole-mount in situ hybridization analysis of Tdrd5 expression in the mouse embryonic gonad indicated that this gene is upregulated in the developing testis from 12.5 dpc, with expression levels remaining higher in testis than ovary throughout embryogenesis. Expression of Tdrd5 was absent in testes isolated from W-e/W-e embryos, which lack germ cells. In situ hybridization (ISH) on cryosectioned 13.5 dpc testes suggests that expression of Tdrd5, like that of Oct4, is restricted to germ cells. Northern hybridization analysis of expression in adult tissues indicated that Tdrd5 is expressed in the testis only, implying that expression of this gene is restricted to the male germline throughout development to adulthood. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Local fiscal effects of oil and gas development in eight states

Oil and gas production in the United States has increased dramatically in the past 10 years. This growth has important implications for local governments, which often see new revenues from a variety of sources: property taxes on oil and gas property, sales taxes driven by the oil and gas workforce, allocations of state revenues from severance taxes or state and federal leases, leases on local government land, and contributions from oil and gas companies to support local services. At the same time, local governments tend to experience a range of new costs such as road damage caused by heavy industry truck traffic, increased demand for emergency services and law enforcement, and challenges with workforce retention. This report examines county and municipal fiscal effects in 14 oil- and gas-producing regions of eight states: AK, CA, KS, OH, OK, NM, UT, and WV. We find that for most local governments, oil and gas development—whether new or longstanding—has a positive effect on local public finances. However, effects can vary substantially due to a variety of local factors and policy issues. For some local governments, particularly those in rural regions experiencing large increases in development, revenues have not kept pace with rapidly increased costs and demand for services, particularly on road repair.

Genetic control of development in the parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus by microRNAs

The parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus has a major impact on the welfare and economic sustainability of small ruminant farming throughout the world. Increasing drug resistance requires the development of novel therapeutic agents. To further this process, we examined the fundamental biology of development in H. contortus, specifically, the potential role of microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are short, non-coding RNA molecules that negatively regulate gene expression. In the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, miRNAs regulate a variety of genes including those involved in development. This thesis describes the expression patterns, potential targets and possible functions of miRNAs in H. contortus throughout development.

Development Of Interpersonal Relationships in Global Virtual Teams

This study investigates the development of relationships in same global virtual team working on different projects. The purpose is to explore how do interpersonal relationships develop in terms of characteristics of virtuality and if there is any influence of project lifespan on the development of these relationships. Since relationships are dynamic in nature and are influenced by multiple levels of variables including individual, group and organizational level, therefore characteristics of virtuality have been considered from all these aspects so as to study their influence on development of relationships. In this study, relationships have been studied at two different levels. At first, dyadic relationships between two members of a GVT have been analyzed and thereafter, focus has been on the development of relationships among the team, based on these dyads. Characteristics having influence on development of relationships include trust, physical distance, time zone difference, cultural and language differences, level of formalization in the organization and means of communication used by team members. Level of formalization and means of communication are two characteristics which emerged after empirical study and are found to have direct influence on development of relationships. Remaining characteristics have been identified through literature review. In order to conduct the study, qualitative methodology has been applied. Empirical data has been collected based on a single case study while using semi-structured interviews as data gathering technique. Data analysis has been performed by applying thematic analysis along with the utilization of company documents such as work sheets, minutes of meetings and recordings of conferences. Findings of the study indicate that development of relationships, both at dyadic level and team level, is influenced by different events taking place among different members of GVT. These events have either positive or negative influence on the characteristics of virtuality, which leads to development of the relationships. It has been found that, trust, among all factors plays a greater role in development of these relations. Contrary to the belief that most conflicts arise among members of different cultures, they are equally likely to happen among the members from same culture in GVT environment. Study suggests that relationship development is not a smooth process but it fluctuates based on different events in teams. For further research, teams within large firms shall be studied along these lines. This study is an early attempt towards bringing different characteristics of virtuality together which previously, have been studied individually. It is therefore plausible to conduct similar studies so as to generalize the findings of this study which has provided a starting point.

Capturing User Requirements in Medical Device Development: The Role of Ergonomics

Measuring and fulfilling user requirements during medical device development will result in successful products that improve patient safety, improve device effectiveness and reduce product recalls and modifications. Medical device users are an extremely heterogeneous group and for any one device the users may include patients, their carers as well as various healthcare professionals. There are a number of factors that make capturing user requirements for medical device development challenging including the ethical and research governance involved with studying users as well as the inevitable time and financial constraints. Most ergonomics research methods have been developed in response to such practical constraints and a number of these have potential for medical device development. Some are suitable for specific points in the device cycle such as contextual inquiry and ethnography, others, such as usability tests and focus groups may be used throughout development. When designing user research there are a number of factors that may affect the quality of data collected including the sample of users studied, the use of proxies instead of real end-users and the context in which the research is performed. As different methods are effective in identifying different types of data, ideally more than one method should be used at each point in development, however financial and time factors may often constrain this.

"Ancestry, gender and language - The role of culture in economic development"

This thesis is a combination of research questions in development economics and economics of culture, with an emphasis on the role of ancestry, gender and language policies in shaping inequality of opportunities and socio-economic outcomes across different segments of a society. The first chapter shows both theoretically and empirically that heterogeneity in risk attitudes can be traced to the ethnic origins and ancestral way of living. In particular, I construct a measure of historical nomadism at the ethnicity level and link it to contemporary individual-level data on various proxies of risk attitudes. I exploit exogenous variation in biodiversity to build a novel instrument for nomadism: distance to domestication points. I find that descendants of ethnic groups that historically practiced nomadism (i) are more willing to take risks, (ii) value security less, and (iii) have riskier health behavior. The second chapter evaluates the nature of a trade-off between the advantages of female labor participation and the positive effects of female education. This work exploits a triple difference identification strategy relying on exogenous spike in cotton price and spatial variation in suitability for cotton, and split sample analyses based on the exogenous allocation of land contracts. Results show that gender differences in parental investments in patriarchal societies can be reinforced by the type of agricultural activity, while positive economic shocks may further exacerbate this bias, additionally crowding out higher possibilities to invest in female education. The third chapter brings novel evidence of the role of the language policy in building national sentiments, affecting educational and occupational choices. Here I focus on the case of Uzbekistan and estimate the effects of exposure to the Latin alphabet on informational literacy, education and career choices. I show that alphabet change affects people's informational literacy and the formation of certain educational and labour market trends.