Resolving conflict in bipolar societies: The fate of political settlements in Fiji and Northern Ireland

Ethnically divided societies that might be described as ‘balanced bicommunal’ (where there are two communities, each of which comes close to representing half of the population) pose a particular challenge to conventional principles of collective decision-making, and commonly threaten political stability. This article analyses the experience of two such societies – Northern Ireland and Fiji – with a view to exploring whether there are common processes in the route by which political stability has been pursued. We assess the manner in which a distinctive relationship with Great Britain and its political culture has interacted with local conditions to produce a highly competitive, bipolar party system. This leads to consideration of the devices that have been adopted in an effort to bridge the gap between the communities: the Fiji constitution as amended in 1997, and Northern Ireland’s Good Friday Agreement of 1998. We focus, in particular, on the use of unusual (preferential voting) formulas for the election of parliamentarians and of an inclusive principle in the selection of ministers, and consider the contribution of these institutional devices to the attainment of political stability. We find that, in both cases, the intervention of forces from outside the political system had a decisive impact, though in very different ways. In addition to being underpinned by solid institutional design, for political settlements to work effectively, some minimal level of trust between rival elites is required.

Medicinal Water? The occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments A short communication

Although very little is known about the transport, fate and toxic effects of medical compounds in aquatic environments, the presence of these compounds in potable water sources can no longer be overlooked. We can argue that trace concentrations of drugs in the water is relatively a minor problem, however, the current and future demands on global potable freshwater supplies will probably lead to greater incidents of indirect and direct water-reuse situations at the local, regional, and cross-border levels. It is important to remark that the solution of this emerging ecological issue does not rely on new and better wastewater treatment technologies, but a new paradigm of responsibility and the understanding of the relations between anthropogenic actions and their ecological effects as well. The objective of this brief communication is to present the state of the art of research conducted in the last decade in Europe and United States concerning the presence of pharmaceuticals products in aquatic environments.

Origin and fate of surface drift in the oceanic convergence zones of the eastern Pacific

This study investigates the structure and intensity of the surface pathways connecting to and from the central areas of the large-scale convergence regions of the eastern Pacific Ocean. Surface waters are traced with numerical Lagrangian particles transported in the velocity field of three different ocean models with horizontal resolutions that range from ¼° to 1/32°. The connections resulting from the large-scale convergent Ekman dynamics agree qualitatively but are strongly modulated by eddy variability that introduces meridional asymmetry in the amplitude of transport. Lagrangian forward-in-time integrations are used to analyze the fate of particles originating from the central regions of the convergence zones and highlight specific outflows not yet reported for the southeastern Pacific when using the currents at the highest resolutions (1/12° and 1/32°). The meridional scales of these outflows are comparable to the characteristic width of the fine-scale striation of mean currents.

Emergence and fate of siloxanes in waste streams: Release mechanisms, partitioning and persistence in three environmental compartments

Siloxanes are widely used in personal care and industrial products due to their low surface tension, thermal stability, antimicrobial and hydrophobic properties, among other characteristics. Volatile methyl siloxanes (VMS) have been detected both in landfill gas and biogas from anaerobic digesters at wastewater treatment plants. As a result, they are released to gas phase during waste decomposition and wastewater treatment. During transformation processes of digester or landfill gas to energy, siloxanes are converted to silicon oxides, leaving abrasive deposits on engine components. These deposits cause increased maintenance costs and in some cases complete engine overhauls become necessary. ^ The objectives of this study were to compare the VMS types and levels present in biogas generated in the anaerobic digesters and landfills and evaluate the energetics of siloxane transformations under anaerobic conditions. Siloxane emissions, resulting from disposal of silicone-based materials, are expected to increase by 29% within the next 10 years. Estimated concentrations and the risk factors of exposure to siloxanes were evaluated based on the initial concentrations, partitioning characteristics and persistence. It was determined that D4 has the highest risk factor associated to bioaccumulation in liquid and solid phase, whereas D5 was highest in gas phase. Additionally, as siloxanes are combusted, the particle size range causes them to be potentially hazardous to human health. When inhaled, they may affix onto the alveoli of the lungs and may lead to development of silicosis. Siloxane-based COD-loading was evaluated and determined to be an insignificant factor concerning COD limits in wastewater. ^ Removal of siloxane compounds is recommended prior to land application of biosolids or combustion of biogas. A comparison of estimated costs was made between maintenance practices for removal of siloxane deposits and installation/operation of fixed-bed carbon absorption systems. In the majority of cases, the installation of fixed-bed adsorption systems would not be a feasible option for the sole purpose of siloxane removal. However they may be utilized to remove additional compounds simultaneously.^

By-catch and discarding practices in five Algarve (southern Portugal) metiers

The catches and discards of trawlers, seiners and trammel netters were studied in the Algarve (southern Portugal) using observers onboard commercial fishing vessels. Species diversity was high, with 236 species recorded as occasionally, frequently or regularly discarded. Mean discard rates per trip were 0.13, 0.20, 0.27, 0.62 and 0.70, respectively, for trammel nets, demersal purse seines, pelagic purse seines, fish trawls and crustacean trawls, with high variability in terms of discard volume and discard rate, This was especially so for se ncrs where from 0 to 100% of the total catch might be discarded. No significant relationships were found between discard quantity or discard rate and characteristics of the fishing vessels sampled within each metier (total length, TAB, hp, kW). Based on the above discard rates and the official landings, it was estimated that in 1996, Algarve trawlers discarded 9000-13000 tonnes (t) while seiners discarded 5500-8200 t. Discarding practices in these fisheries are reviewed and the reasons for discarding are presented by species and metier basis. The results support the need for more studies on the factors contributing to discarding, variability in discard quantities and rates, the fate of discards and their importance to the marine ecosystem, and on ways of reducing by-catch and discarding in these fisheries.

Discards of the Algarve (southern Portugal) crustacean trawl fishery

The crustacean trawl fishery off the Algarve coast (southern Portugal) takes place on the lower continental shelf and upper continental slope at depths between 150 and 600 m. This is a multi-species fishery targeting the shrimps Parapenaeus longirostris and Aristeus antennatus and the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus, with the latter two species the most important in the landings. The fishery is characterised by significant by-catch and discarding of a large number of species. As part of a study on the fate of trawl fishery discards, this component of the study focused on the quantification of the by-catch and discards of crustacean trawlers. Sampling took place on board seven commercial trawlers from June 1998 to October 1999. Data was collected from 48 tows in 22 fishing trips. The observers collected all of the catch that was discarded by the crew during the sorting operation and samples were taken to the laboratory for identification, weighing and measuring. The quantities of target species were recorded along with the presence of retained by-catch. Commercially valuable species that were retained included Plesiopenaeus edwardsianus, Aristeomorpha foliacea, Plesionika sp., and the fishes Lophius piscatorius and Merluccius merluccius. However, most of the species had no or little commercial value and were almost always discarded to the sea (90%). A total of 91 species were identified, 47 vertebrates and 44 invertebrates corresponding to 65 families. The Teleostei (78% and 68%) were the dominant group, both in number and weight. The species Micromesistius poutassou (34%), Gadiculus argenteus (10%) and Hoplostethus mediterraneus (8%) were the most important in weight. Ten species represented more than 82% of all discards in weight. Gadiculus argenteus (29%), Hoplostethus mediterraneus (21%) and Nezumia sclerorhynchus (10%) accounted for 60% of all discards in numbers. Data on the landed species composition is also presented.

Fate and transport of bensulfuron-methyl and imazosulfuron in paddy fields: Experiments and model simulation

Experiments were conducted to determine the fate of bensulfuron-methyl (BSM) and imazosulfuron (IMS) under paddy conditions. Initially, laboratory experiments were conducted and the photolysis half-lives of the two herbicides were found to be much shorter than their hydrolysis half-lives in aqueous solutions. In the aerobic water–soil system, dissipation followed first-order kinetics with water half-lives of 9.1 and 11.0 days and soil half-lives of 12.4 and 18.5 days (first phase) and 35.0 and 44.1 days (second phase) for bensulfuron-methyl and imazosulfuron, respectively. However, the anaerobic soil half-lives were only 12.7 and 9.8 days for BSM and IMS, respectively. The values of K d were determined to be 16.0 and 13.8 for BSM and IMS, respectively. Subsequent field measurements for the two herbicides revealed that dissipation of both herbicides in paddy water involved biphasic first-order kinetics, with the dissipation rates in the first phase being much faster than those in the second phase. The dissipation of bensulfuron-methyl and imazosulfuron in the paddy surface soil were also followed biphasic first-order kinetics. These results were then used as input parameters for the PCPF-1 model to simulate the fate and transport of BSM and IMS in the paddy environment (water and 1-cm surface soil layer). The measured and simulated values agreed well and the mass balance error during the simulation period was −1.2 and 2.8% of applied pesticide, respectively, for BSM and IMS.

Fate and transport of nursery-box-applied tricyclazole and imidacloprid in paddy fields

The fate and transport of tricyclazole and imidacloprid in paddy plots after nursery-box application was monitored. Water and surface soil samples were collected over a period of 35 days. Rates of dissipation from paddy waters and soils were also measured. Dissipation of the two pesticides from paddy water can be described by first-order kinetics. In the soil, only the dissipation of imidacloprid fitted to the simple first-order kinetics, whereas tricyclazole concentrations fluctuated until the end of the monitoring period. Mean half-life (DT₅₀) values for tricyclazole were 11.8 and 305 days, respectively, in paddy water and surface soil. The corresponding values of imidacloprid were 2.0 and 12.5 days, respectively, in water and in surface soil. Less than 0.9% of tricyclazole and 0.1% of imidacloprid were lost through runoff during the monitoring period even under 6.3 cm of rainfall. The pesticide formulation seemed to affect the environmental fate of these pesticides when these results were compared to those of other studies.

Distribution and bioaccumulation of microcystins in water columns: A systematic investigation into the environmental fate and the risks associated with microcystins in Meiliang Bay, Lake Taihu

For the purpose of understanding the environmental fate of microcystins (MCs) and the potential health risks caused by toxic cyanobacterial blooms in Lake Taihu, a systematic investigation was carried out from February 2005 to January 2006. The distribution of MCs in the water column, and toxin bioaccumulations in aquatic organisms were surveyed. The results suggested that Lake Taihu is heavily polluted during summer months by toxic cyanobacterial blooms (with a maximum biovolume of 6.7 x 10(8) cells/L) and MCs. The maximum concentration of cell-bound toxins was 1.81 mg/g (DW) and the dissolved MCs reached a maximum level of 6.69 mu g/L. Dissolved MCs were always found in the entire water column at all sampling sites throughout the year. Our results emphasized the need for tracking MCs not only in the entire water column but also at the interface between water and sediment. Seasonal changes of MC concentrations in four species of hydrophytes (Eichhornic crassipes, Potamogeton maackianus, Alternanthera philoxeroides and Myriophyllum spicatum) ranged from 129 to 1317, 147 to 1534, 169 to 3945 and 124 to 956 ng/g (DW), respectively. Toxin accumulations in four aquatic species (Carassius auratus auratu, Macrobrachium nipponensis, Bellamya aeruginosa and Cristaria plicata) were also analyzed. Maximum toxin concentrations in the edible organs and non-edible visceral organs ranged from 378 to 730 and 754 to 3629 ng/g (DW), respectively. Based on field studies in Lake Taihu, risk assessments were carried out, taking into account the WHO guidelines and the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for MCs. Our findings suggest that the third largest lake in China poses serious health threats when serving as a source of drinking water and for recreational use. In addition, it is likely to be unsafe to consume aquatic species harvested in Lake Taihu due to the high-concentrations of accumulated MCs. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A comparison of nitogen fate and transport in catchments underlain by high and low permeability aquifers using chemical and isotopic tools.

Variability in nitrogen fate and transport in different catchments types is often not considered. This research considers the importance of such nitrogen processes within groundwater pathways in two agricultural catchments in Ireland; a well drained catchment, underlain by karstified Carboniferous limestone, and a poorly drained catchment, underlain by Silurian greywacke.
Depth specific low-flow groundwater sampling was used to evaluate the hydrochemical stratification in groundwater. Groundwater samples, as well as surface water samples, along river courses were analysed for nitrogen species (NO3, NH4 and NO2) and nitrate isotopes (d15N and d18O) as well as field parameters and major ions
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The dominant nitrate (NO3) groundwater pathway in the poorly drained greywacke catchment is through the shallow weathered bedrock, as indicated by transmissivity values and the ionic and isotopic signatures, and a clear reduction in NO3 concentration is observed with depth. A similar chloride trend would suggest dilution is a major factor, however d15N and d18O isotopic values producing an enrichment ratio of 1.8 indicate that denitrification is also an important process involved in the fate of the NO3 within the groundwater flow system. This consistent trend with depth is in contrast to the stratification pattern observed in the karstified catchment. NO3 was not detected in the shallow groundwater pathway; the dominant groundwater pathway is in the deeper groundwater where there is little change in the nitrate isotope values with depth (d15N values range between 4.1 and 4.6 ‰). This deeper groundwater contributes the dominant proportion of the river flow through a number of springs. As a result, the deeper groundwater, springs and river have a similar ionic signature and NO3 concentration range (23 ± 3 mg/l). Despite this pattern, the NO3 isotopes show a distinct difference in isotopic values between the deeper groundwater in the diffuse karst and the springs indicating some denitrification is occurring during groundwater discharge into the river. Furthermore the isotopes give an indication of the variability of the spatial extent of the springs and the complexities of the fissures through which they are fed. The results of this study clearly show the importance of the geology in the fate and transport of NO3 in agricultural catchments.

Fate map of zebrafish left-right organizer

The organizer is a ciliated signalling transient organ, responsible for the patterning of embryo tissues during embryonic development. In higher vertebrates, such as mouse and chick, this organizer (the node and the Hensen’s node, respectively) performs dorsalventral and anteriorposterior axis definition, as well as left-right patterning of the internal organs. In lower vertebrates, such as frog and zebrafish, there is a separate specialized organ for left-right purposes called the Gastrocoel Roof Plate (GRP) and Kupffer’s Vesicle (KV), respectively. It is known that mouse and chick organizer cells give rise to structures like floor plate, notochord, hypochord and somites. Frog GRP originates all these but floor plate. In zebrafish, at 13-14 somite stage (ss) the KV finished its left-right patterning but what happens to this organizer’ cells is still poorly studied. This research attempts to understand the fate and behaviour of the KV cells. We followed the fate of KV cells by live imaging and by tight time-courses with fixed larvae. We assessed in detail their proliferative and death profile, as well as cilia length progression from 9-10 ss until 29-30 ss. We conclude that the KV cells mostly follow the evolutionarily conserved fates described for other organizers. These cells mainly incorporate the notochord and hypochord; few cells incorporate the floor plate and the somites. As a novelty, it is also hypothesized that the hypural cell fate may be among the KV cell fates.

Seedling fate across different habitats: the effects of herbivory and soil fertility

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Functional analysis of the sea urchin {\it orthodenticle\/} -related gene, {\it SPOTX\/}, in aboral ectoderm-specific gene activation and aboral ectoderm cell fate specification

An important question in developmental biology is how embryonic cell types are derived from a fertilized egg. To address this question, this thesis investigates the mechanisms by which the aboral ectoderm-specific Spec2a gene is spatially and temporally regulated during sea urchin embryogenesis. The Spec2a gene of the sea urchin Strongylocentratus purpuratus has served as a valuable maker to understand the basis of lineage-specific gene activation and the role of transcription factors in cell fate specification. The hypothesis is that transcription factors responsible for cell type-specific gene activation are key components in the initial cell specification step. The Spec2a gene, which encodes a small cytosolic calcium-binding protein, is expressed exclusively in aboral ectoderm cell lineages. The 1516-bp control region of the Spec2a gene contains a 188-bp enhancer element required for temporal activation and aboral ectoderm/mesenchyme cell expression, while an unidentified element upstream of the enhancer represses expression in mesenchyme cells. Using an enhancer activation assay, combined with site-directed mutagenesis, I showed that three TAATCC/T sites within the enhancer are responsible for enhancer activity. Mutagenizing these sites and a fourth one just upstream abolished all activity from the Spec2a control region. A 77-bp DNA fragment from the Spec2a enhancer containing two of the TAATCC/T sites is sufficient for aboral ectoderm/mesenchyme cell expression. A cDNA encoding SpOtx, an orthodenticle-related protein, was cloned from S. purpuratus and shown to bind with high affinity to the TAATCC/T sequences within the Spec2a control region. SpOtx transcripts were found initially in all cells of the cleaving embryo, but they gradually became restricted to oral ectoderm and endoderm cells, suggesting that SpOtx might play a role in the initial temporal activation of the Spec2a gene and most likely has additional functions in the developing embryo. To reveal the broader biological functions of SpOtx, I injected SpOtx mRNA into living sea urchin eggs to determine what effects overexpressing the SpOtx protein might have on embryo development. SpOtx mRNA-injected embryos displayed dramatic alterations in development. Instead of developing into pluteus larvae with 15 different cell types, uniform epithelia balls were formed. These balls consisted of a thin layer of squamous cells with short cilia highly reminiscent of aboral ectoderm. Immunohistochemical staining and RT-PCR demonstrated that the SpOtx-injected embryoids expressed aboral ectoderm markers uniformly, but showed very weak or no expression of markers for non-aboral ectoderm cell types. These data strongly suggested that overexpression of SpOtx redirected the normal fate of non-aboral ectoderm cells to that of aboral ectoderm. These results show that SpOtx is involved in aboral ectoderm differentiation by activating aboral ectoderm-specific genes and that modulating its expression can lead to changes in cell fate. ^

Literature review of elasmobranch bycatch and retention rate

To address growing concern over the effects of fisheries non-target catch on elasmobranchs worldwide, the accurate reporting of elasmobranch catch is essential. This requires data on a combination of measures, including reported landings, retained and discarded non-target catch, and post-discard survival. Identification of the factors influencing discard vs. retention is needed to improve catch estimates and to determine wasteful fishing practices. To do this we compared retention rates of elasmobranch non-target catch in a broad subset of fisheries throughout the world by taxon, fishing country, and gear. A regression tree and random forest analysis indicated that taxon was the most important determinant of retention in this dataset, but all three factors together explained 59% of the variance. Estimates of total elasmobranch removals were calculated by dividing the FAO global elasmobranch landings by average retention rates and suggest that total elasmobranch removals may exceed FAO reported landings by as much as 400%. This analysis is the first effort to directly characterize global drivers of discards for elasmobranch non-target catch. Our results highlight the importance of accurate quantification of retention and discard rates to improve assessments of the potential impacts of fisheries on these species.