Early Modern Trading Networks in Europe. Cooperation and the case of Simon Ruiz.

In the early modern period, trade became a truly global phenomenon. The logistics, financial and organizational complexity associated with it increased in order to connect distant geographies and merchants from different backgrounds. How did these merchants prevent their partners from dishonesty in a time where formal institutions and legislation did not traverse these different worlds? This book studies the mechanisms and criteria of cooperation in early modern trading networks. It uses an interdisciplinary approach, through the case study of a Castilian long-distance merchant of the sixteenth century, Simon Ruiz, who traded within the limits of the Portuguese and Spanish overseas empires. Early Modern Trading Networks in Europe discusses the importance of reciprocity mechanisms, trust and reputation in the context of early modern business relations, using network analysis methodology, combining quantitative data with qualitative information. It considers how cooperation and prevention could simultaneously create a business relationship, and describes the mechanisms of control, policing and punishment used to avoid opportunism and deception among a group of business partners. Using bills of exchange and correspondence from Simon Ruiz’s private archive, it charts the evolution of this business network through time, debating which criteria should be included or excluded from business networks, as well as the emergence of standards. This book intends to put forward a new approach to early modern trade which focuses on individuals interacting in self-organized structures, rather than on states or empires. It shows how indirect reciprocity was much more frequent than direct reciprocity among early modern merchants and how informal norms, like ostracism or signaling, helped to prevent defection and deception in an effective way.

The Evolution of Norms in Trade and Financial Networks in the First Global Age: the case of Simon Ruiz's network

In the 16th century, merchants and bankers gained a social influence and political relevance, due to their capacity of ‘faire travailler l’argent des autres’ (Benassar 1972:50). For the success of their activity, they built evolving networks with cooperative partners. These networks were much more than the sum of all partners. In the case study of the Castilian merchant Simon Ruiz, the network functioned in an unique way and independent from any formal institutional control. Its functioning varied in how different partners were associated and the particular characteristics and contents of these social ties. Being a self-organized network, since the formal institutions of trade regulation and the Crown control didn’t influence the network functioning, the Simon Ruiz network was deeply embedded in the economic and financial performance of the Hispanic Empires, in two different ways. The first, purely commercial. The monopolistic regime which was applied by the two crowns in the trade of certain colonial goods was insufficient to the costs of imperial maintenance. In such manner, particulars tried to rent a contract of exploration of trade, paying an annual sum to the crown, as in the Portuguese trade. Some of these agents also moved along Simon Ruiz’s network. But others were involved in relations with the imperial crowns on a second way, the finance. Maintaining Empires implied a lot of human, technical but also financial means, and most of the times Kings were forced to recur to these merchants, as we will demonstrate. What were the implications of these collaborative relations in both parts? The main goal of this paper is to comprehend the evolution of informal norms within Simon Ruiz’s network and how they influenced cooperative behavior of the agents, particularly analyzing mechanisms of sanctioning, control, punishment and reward, as well as their consequences in different dimensions: future interactions, social repercussions and in agent’s economic health and activity. The research is based in the bills of exchange and commercial correspondence of the private archive of Simon Ruiz, located in the Provincial Archive of Valladollid, Spain.

Les machines du pouvoir. Technique et politique entre l'Iran sassanide et le califat abbasside

Dans l’Antiquité, la recherche sur la technique permet les premières réalisations de dispositifs ingénieux, tels que des appareils qui accomplissent une série d’actions par le biais de stimulus externes et de mécanismes cachés. Les organismes politiques et religieux saisissent rapidement la puissance communicative de ces machines, en devenant les promoteurs et patrons privilégiés de leur production. L’Empire sassanide (224-650) ne constitue pas une exception. En effet, les souverains perses consacrent, au moins à l’époque tardive, une grande attention à la conception et au déploiement de dispositifs savants. De même, un siècle plus tard, dans le milieu du califat islamique, les Abbassides (750-1258) semblent s’entourer de tels dispositifs. La continuité entre les deux empires dans plusieurs domaines, de la théorie politique à l’administration, est bien connue. Cependant, la question de la réutilisation du patrimoine technique et scientifique ancien, et notamment sassanide, par la cour abbasside, demeure encore largement inexplorée. L’étude d’un corpus de sources, aussi vaste qu’hétérogène, rassemblant des ouvrages historiographiques, géographiques, poétiques et d’adab, ainsi que des traités scientifiques et techniques en plusieurs langues, permet d’analyser différents aspects de la production et de l’usage politique des machines. Au sein de la cour sassanide, comme de la cour abbasside, la machine s’avère constituer un véhicule préférentiel de représentation et de diffusion de l’idéologie politique. À travers sa mise en scène publique, elle contribue de manière substantielle à la définition de l’espace du pouvoir, en participant à la création d’une image de la cour comme un microcosme au cœur duquel le Roi des rois, et plus tard le calife, occupaient le rôle cardinal de maître incontesté du monde. La continuité entre les empires sassanide et abbasside dans le domaine technique ne se limite donc pas à une récupération de savoirs, mais s’opère aussi sous la forme d’une véritable réactivation d’un patrimoine symbolique