Embracing difference and the deferral of self-government: a critical analysis of the framing and practice of contemporary peace building

This thesis analyses how dominant policy approaches to peacebuilding have moved away from a single and universalised understanding of peace to be achieved through a top-down strategy of democratisation and economic liberalisation, prevalent at the beginning of 1990s. Instead, throughout the 2000s, peacebuilders have increasingly adopted a commitment to cultivating a bottom-up and hybrid peace building process that is context-sensitive and intended to be more respectful of the needs and values of post-war societies. The projects of statebuilding in Kosovo and, to a lesser extent, in Bosnia are examined to illustrate the shift. By capturing this shift, I seek to argue that contemporary practitioners of peace are sharing the sensibility of the theoretical critics of liberalism. These critics have long contended that post-war societies cannot be governed from ‘above’ and have advocated the adoption of a bottom-up approach to peacebuilding. Now, both peace practitioners and their critics share the tendency to embrace difference in peacebuilding operations, but this shift has failed to address meaningfully the problems and concerns of post-conflict societies. The conclusion of this research is that, drawing on the assumption that these societies are not capable of undertaking sovereign acts because of their problematic inter-subjective frames, the discourses of peacebuilding (in policy-making and academic critique) have increasingly legitimised an open-ended role of interference by external agencies, which now operate from ‘below’. Peacebuilding has turned into a long-term process, in which international and local actors engage relationally in the search for ever-more emancipatory hybrid outcomes, but in which self-government and self-determination are constantly deferred. Processes of emphasising difference have thus denied the political autonomy of post-war societies and have continuously questioned the political and human equality of these populations in a hierarchically divided world.

La représentation de la tragédie humaine dans la littérature des génocides du XXe siècle : les enjeux de la mise en récit d’une expérience catastrophique

Étant tous les deux récits d’événements, l’histoire et le roman ne sont pas logés à la même enseigne : le contenu du texte romanesque est habituellement considéré comme le contraire de celui du texte historique. On suppose que l’histoire raconte les vraies choses alors que le roman excelle dans l’imaginaire. Dans la représentation des génocides, le discours romanesque et celui historique partagent de nombreuses stratégies narratives à partir desquelles se réalise la relecture de l’expérience tragique. De nombreux artifices incitent le discours à se contenter d’être le (trans)porteur d’une conscience souveraine qui transcende les faits, le temps et l’espace reliés à l’événement. Ni l’histoire ni le roman ne sont reconstitutions expérientielles, mais le procédé de mise en récit doit démontrer une épaisseur discursive pouvant produire chez le lecteur la représentation d’un monde. Cette thèse prend pour objet les modalités littéraires des récits et des romans qui essayent de représenter l’expérience du génocide. En analysant ce dispositif discursif qui ne fait plus de différence entre le réel, le vrai et la vraisemblance, les livres de notre corpus présentent l’expérience du génocide et pensent les brisures et les déchirures d’humanité constatées dans différentes régions du monde (dans l’Empire ottoman, dans l’Allemagne nazie, en Bosnie, au Rwanda, etc.). Dans cette perspective, nous examinons la littérarisation de ces événements horribles qui se déroulent suivant un schéma narratif formé de séquences véridiques et de scènes imaginaires mettant en exergue toutes les innovations stylistiques et langagières qui font la singularité et l’originalité des ces œuvres. Fort de ces spécificités, les quatre principaux romans de notre corpus (Journal de déportation, Être sans destin, Le soldat et le gramophone et Le Passé devant soi) s’appuient sur une vraisemblance littéraire ou poétique qui leur permet d’aller à la quête d’une vérité ; une vérité littéraire non seulement subjective, mais en mesure d’accompagner la vérité historique.

Estado del arte . El conflicto en la antigua Yugoslavia

El autor de este libro analiza la diferencia o complementariedad entre dos conceptos fundamentales para este libro: la seguridad en Bosnia y la seguridad de Bosnia. Entendida la primera como la seguridad al interior del país y la segunda como la seguridad en la región desde de las fronteras bosnias, para afirmar que existe una relación crítica entre las dos. El propósito de este libro, como el mismo autor afirma, no es el de únicamente entablar un debate acerca de los santuarios para los terroristas; tampoco pretende llevar a cabo un análisis exhaustivo de este tema ni discutir detalladamente todos los temas que son estudiados en el libro; únicamente busca dar luces a los problemas complejos y preocupaciones que enfrenta el Estado de Bosnia (Innes 2006).

Neutralidad y acción humanitaria.

Resumen del documento

¿Qué modelos para las niñas? : una investigación sobre los libros ilustrados.

La investigación ha sido realizada con la ayuda de la Comisión Europea

¿Qué ven los niños en los libros de imágenes? : respuestas sobre los estereotipos.

Investigación realizada con el apoyo de la Comisión Europea

Of Law, Lawlessness, and Sovereignty : Multinational Peacekeeping and International Law

Laws of war have been carefully defined by individual nations’ own codes of law as well as by supranational bodies. Yet the international scene has seen an increasing movement away from traditionally declared war toward multinational peacekeeping missions geared at containing local conflicts when perceived as potential threats to their respective regions’ political stability. While individual nations’ laws governing warfare presuppose national sovereignty, the multinational nature of peacekeeping scenarios can blur the lines of command structures, soldiers’ national loyalties, occupational jurisdiction, and raise profound questions as to which countries’ moral sense/governmental system is to be the one upheld. Historically increasingly complex international relations have driven increasingly detailed internationally drafted guidelines for countries’ interactions while at war, yet there are operational, legislative, and moral issues arising in multinational peacekeeping situations which these laws do not address at all. The author analyzes three unique peacekeeping operations in light of these legislative voids and suggests systematic points to consider to the end of protecting the peacekeepers, the national interests of the countries involved, operational matters, and clearly delineating both the objective and logical boundaries of a given multinational peacekeeping mission.

Identidades e diferenças: o caso da guerra civil na antiga Iugoslávia

Abstract: The civil war in the former Yugoslavia (1991 - 1995) had a strong ethnicreligious component. In an attempt to maintain the cohesion of an artificially created state post-first World War, identities were sought and accepted - and institutionalized - the differences between the various peoples that constituted the "land of the South Slavs". From the 1980s the differences were highlighted during the war and taken to the extreme, especially in the territories of Croatia and BosniaHerzegovina. From literature and the author's personal experience and using concepts of culture, ethnicity, identity, difference, belonging, nation and state, the text shows how the ethnic-religious differences were used during the civil war in Yugoslavia to claim possession of territories, strengthen discourse of the impossibility of coexistence, overvalue potential threats and fear and justify the perpetration of crimes against humanity.

Tuzla City (BiH): an example of geohazard induced by salt extraction

Salt deposits characterize the subsurface of Tuzla (BiH) and made it famous since the ancient times. Archeological discoveries demonstrate the presence of a Neolithic pile-dwelling settlement related to the existence of saltwater springs that contributed to make the most of the area a swampy ground. Since the Roman times, the town is reported as “the City of Salt deposits and Springs”; "tuz" is the Turkish word for salt, as the Ottomans renamed the settlement in the 15th century following their conquest of the medieval Bosnia (Donia and Fine, 1994). Natural brine springs were located everywhere and salt has been evaporated by means of hot charcoals since pre-Roman times. The ancient use of salt was just a small exploitation compared to the massive salt production carried out during the 20th century by means of classical mine methodologies and especially wild brine pumping. In the past salt extraction was practised tapping natural brine springs, while the modern technique consists in about 100 boreholes with pumps tapped to the natural underground brine runs, at an average depth of 400-500 m. The mining operation changed the hydrogeological conditions enabling the downward flow of fresh water causing additional salt dissolution. This process induced severe ground subsidence during the last 60 years reaching up to 10 meters of sinking in the most affected area. Stress and strain of the overlying rocks induced the formation of numerous fractures over a conspicuous area (3 Km2). Consequently serious damages occurred to buildings and infrastructures such as water supply system, sewage networks and power lines. Downtown urban life was compromised by the destruction of more than 2000 buildings that collapsed or needed to be demolished causing the resettlement of about 15000 inhabitants (Tatić, 1979). Recently salt extraction activities have been strongly reduced, but the underground water system is returning to his natural conditions, threatening the flooding of the most collapsed area. During the last 60 years local government developed a monitoring system of the phenomenon, collecting several data about geodetic measurements, amount of brine pumped, piezometry, lithostratigraphy, extension of the salt body and geotechnical parameters. A database was created within a scientific cooperation between the municipality of Tuzla and the city of Rotterdam (D.O.O. Mining Institute Tuzla, 2000). The scientific investigation presented in this dissertation has been financially supported by a cooperation project between the Municipality of Tuzla, The University of Bologna (CIRSA) and the Province of Ravenna. The University of Tuzla (RGGF) gave an important scientific support in particular about the geological and hydrogeological features. Subsidence damage resulting from evaporite dissolution generates substantial losses throughout the world, but the causes are only well understood in a few areas (Gutierrez et al., 2008). The subject of this study is the collapsing phenomenon occurring in Tuzla area with the aim to identify and quantify the several factors involved in the system and their correlations. Tuzla subsidence phenomenon can be defined as geohazard, which represents the consequence of an adverse combination of geological processes and ground conditions precipitated by human activity with the potential to cause harm (Rosenbaum and Culshaw, 2003). Where an hazard induces a risk to a vulnerable element, a risk management process is required. The single factors involved in the subsidence of Tuzla can be considered as hazards. The final objective of this dissertation represents a preliminary risk assessment procedure and guidelines, developed in order to quantify the buildings vulnerability in relation to the overall geohazard that affect the town. The historical available database, never fully processed, have been analyzed by means of geographic information systems and mathematical interpolators (PART I). Modern geomatic applications have been implemented to deeply investigate the most relevant hazards (PART II). In order to monitor and quantify the actual subsidence rates, geodetic GPS technologies have been implemented and 4 survey campaigns have been carried out once a year. Subsidence related fractures system has been identified by means of field surveys and mathematical interpretations of the sinking surface, called curvature analysis. The comparison of mapped and predicted fractures leaded to a better comprehension of the problem. Results confirmed the reliability of fractures identification using curvature analysis applied to sinking data instead of topographic or seismic data. Urban changes evolution has been reconstructed analyzing topographic maps and satellite imageries, identifying the most damaged areas. This part of the investigation was very important for the quantification of buildings vulnerability.

Il dominio romano in Dalmatia: diffusione del modello urbano e culturale

I viaggi e gli studi compiuti in Croazia, Montenegro e Bosnia Erzegovina in occasione della Tesi di Laurea hanno costituito l’occasione per comprendere quanto sia consistente il retaggio di Roma antica sulla sponda orientale dell’Adriatico. Nello stesso tempo si è potuto constatare che, per diversi motivi, dal punto di vista prettamente scientifico, la ricchezza di questo patrimonio archeologico aveva sino allora trovato soltanto poche occasioni di studio. Da qui la necessità di provvedere a un quadro completo e generale relativo alla presenza romana in un territorio come quello della provincia romana di Dalmatia che, pur considerando la sua molteplicità geografica, etnica, economica, culturale, sociale e politica, ha trovato, grazie all’intervento di Roma, una sua dimensione unitaria, un comune denominatore, tanto da farne una provincia che ebbe un ruolo fondamentale nella storia dell’Impero. Il lavoro prende le mosse da una considerazione preliminare e generale, che ne costituisce quasi lo spunto metodologico più determinante: la trasmissione della cultura e dei modelli di vita da parte di Roma alle altre popolazioni ha creato un modello in virtù del quale l’imperialismo romano si è in certo modo adattato alle diverse culture incontrate ed assimilate, dando vita ad una rete di culture unite da elementi comuni, ma anche profondamente diversificate per sintesi originali. Quella che pare essere la chiave di lettura impiegata è la struttura di un impero a forma di “rete” con forti elementi di coesione, ma allo stesso tempo dotato di ampi margini di autonomia. E questo a cominciare dall’analisi dei fattori che aprirono il cammino dell’afflusso romano in Dalmatia e nello stesso tempo permisero i contatti con il territorio italico. La ricerca ne analizza quindi i fattori:il diretto controllo militare, la costruzione di una rete viaria, l’estensione della cittadinanza romana, lo sviluppo della vita locale attraverso la formazione di una rete di municipi, i contatti economici e l’immigrazione di genti romanizzate. L’analisi ha posto in evidenza una provincia caratterizzata da notevoli contraddizioni, che ne condizionarono – presso entrambi i versanti del Velebit e delle Alpi Dinariche – lo sviluppo economico, sociale, culturale e urbanistico. Le profonde differenze strutturali tra questi due territori rimasero sempre presenti: la zona costiera divenne, sotto tutti i punti di vista, una sorta di continuazione dell’Italia, mntre quella continentale non progredì di pari passo. Eppure l’influenza romana si diffuse anche in questa, così che essa si pote conformare, in una certa misura, alla zona litoranea. Come si può dedurre dal fatto che il severo controllo militare divenne superfluo e che anche questa regione fu dotata progressivamente di centri amministrati da un gruppo dirigente compiutamente integrato nella cultura romana. Oltre all’analisi di tutto ciò che rientra nel processo di acculturazione dei nuovi territori, l’obiettivo principale del lavoro è l’analisi di uno degli elementi più importanti che la dominazione romana apportò nei territori conquistati, ovvero la creazione di città. In questo ambito relativamente periferico dell’Impero, qual è il territorio della provincia romana della Dalmatia, è stato dunque possibile analizzare le modalità di creazione di nuovi centri e di adattamento, da parte di Roma, ai caratteri locali dell’insediamento, nonché ai condizionamenti ambientali, evidenziando analogie e differenze tra le città fondate. Prima dell’avvento di Roma, nessuna delle regioni entrate a far parte dei territori della Dalmatia romana, con la sola eccezione della Liburnia, diede origine a centri di vero e proprio potere politico-economico, come ad esempio le città greche del Mediterraneo orientale, tali da continuare un loro sviluppo all’interno della provincia romana. In altri termini: non si hanno testimonianze di insediamenti autoctoni importanti che si siano trasformati in città sul modello dei centri provinciali romani, senza aver subito cambiamenti radicali quali una nuova pianificazione urbana o una riorganizzazione del modello di vita locale. Questo non significa che la struttura politico-sociale delle diverse tribù sia stata cambiata in modo drastico: almeno nelle modeste “città” autoctone, nelle quali le famiglie appaiono con la cittadinanza romana, assieme agli ordinamenti del diritto municipale, esse semplicemente continuarono ad avere il ruolo che i loro antenati mantennero per generazioni all’interno della propria comunità, prima della conquista romana. Il lavoro mette compiutamente in luce come lo sviluppo delle città nella provincia abbia risentito fortemente dello scarso progresso politico, sociale ed economico che conobbero le tribù e le popolazioni durante la fase pre-romana. La colonizzazione greca, troppo modesta, non riuscì a far compiere quel salto qualitativo ai centri autoctoni, che rimasero sostanzialmente privi di concetti basilari di urbanistica, anche se è possibile notare, almeno nei centri costieri, l’adozione di tecniche evolute, ad esempio nella costruzione delle mura. In conclusione questo lavoro chiarisce analiticamente, con la raccolta di un’infinità di dati (archeologici e topografici, materiali ed epigrafici, e desunti dalle fonti storiche), come la formazione della città e l’urbanizzazione della sponda orientale dell’adriatico sia un fenomeno prettamente romano, pur differenziato, nelle sue dinamiche storiche, quasi caso per caso. I dati offerti dalla topografia delle città della Dalmatia, malgrado la scarsità di esempi ben documentati, sembrano confermare il principio della regolarità degli impianti urbani. Una griglia ortogonale severamente applicata la si individua innanzi tutto nelle città pianificate di Iader, Aequum e, probabilmente, anche a Salona. In primis nelle colonie, quindi, ma non esclusivamente. Anche numerosi municipi sviluppatisi da insediamenti di origine autoctona hanno espresso molto presto la tendenza allo sviluppo di un sistema ortogonale regolare, se non in tutta l’area urbana, almeno nei settori di più possibile applicazione. Ne sono un esempio Aenona, Arba, Argiruntum, Doclea, Narona ed altri. La mancanza di un’organizzazione spaziale regolare non ha tuttavia compromesso l’omogeneità di un’attrezzatura urbana tesa alla normalizzazione, in cui i componenti più importanti, forum e suoi annessi, complessi termali, templi dinastici e capitolia, si avviano a diventare canonici. Le differenze più sensibili, che pure non mancano, sembrano dipendere dalle abitudini delle diverse etnie, dai condizionamenti topografici e dalla disponibilità finanziaria dei notabili. Una città romana non può prendere corpo in tutta la sua pienezza solo per la volontà del potere centrale. Un progetto urbanistico resta un fatto teorico finché non si realizzano le condizioni per cui si fondano due fenomeni importantissimi: uno socio-culturale, che consiste nell’emergenza di una classe di notabili “fortunati” desiderosi di dare a Roma dimostrazioni di lealtà, pronti a rispondere a qualsiasi sollecitazione da parte del potere centrale e addirittura ad anticiparlo; l’altro politico-amministrativo, che riguarda il sistema instaurato da Roma, grazie al quale i suddetti notabili possono godere di un certo potere e muoversi in vista della promozione personale nell’ambito della propria città. Aiuti provenienti dagli imperatori o da governatori provinciali, per quanto consistenti, rimangono un fatto non sistematico se non imprevedibile, e rappresentano comunque un episodio circoscritto. Anche se qualche città risulta in grado di costruire pecunia publica alcuni importanti edifici del quadro monumentale, il ruolo del finanziamento pubblico resta relativamente modesto. Quando la documentazione epigrafica esiste, si rivela che sono i notabili locali i maggiori responsabili della costruzione delle opere pubbliche. Sebbene le testimonianze epigrafiche siano scarse e, per la Dalmatia non sia possibile formulare un quadro completo delle committenze che favorirono materialmente lo sviluppo architettonico ed artistico di molti complessi monumentali, tuttavia è possibile osservare e riconoscere alcuni aspetti significativi e peculiari della provincia.

A Sociological Study of the Political Subsystem in Yugoslavia

In this critical analysis of sociological studies of the political subsystem in Yugoslavia since the fall of communism Mr. Ilic examined the work of the majority of leading researchers of politics in the country between 1990 and 1996. Where the question of continuity was important, he also looked at previous research by the writers in question. His aim was to demonstrate the overall extent of existing research and at the same time to identify its limits and the social conditions which defined it. Particular areas examined included the problems of defining basic concepts and selecting the theoretically most relevant indicators; the sources of data including the types of authentic materials exploited; problems of research work (contacts, field control, etc.); problems of analysisl and finally the problems arising from different relations with the people who commission the research. In the first stage of the research, looking at methods of defining key terms, special attention was paid to the analysis of the most frequently used terms such as democracy, totalitarianism, the political left and right, and populism. Numerous weaknesses were noted in the analytic application of these terms. In studies of the possibilities of creating a democratic political system in Serbia and its possible forms (democracy of the majority or consensual democracy), the profound social division of Serbian society was neglected. The left-right distinction tends to be identified with the government-opposition relation, in the way of practical politics. The idea of populism was used to pass responsibility for the policy of war from the manipulator to the manipulated, while the concept of totalitarianism is used in a rather old-fashioned way, with echoes of the cold war. In general, the terminology used in the majority of recent research on the political subsystem in Yugoslavia is characterised by a special ideological style and by practical political material, rather than by developed theoretical effort. The second section of analysis considered the wider theoretical background of the research and focused on studies of the processes of transformation and transition in Yugoslav society, particularly the work of Mladen Lazic and Silvano Bolcic, who he sees as representing the most important and influential contemporary Yugoslav sociologists. Here Mr. Ilic showed that the meaning of empirical data is closely connected with the stratification schemes towards which they are oriented, so that the same data can have different meanings in shown through different schemes. He went on to show the observed theoretical frames in the context of wider ideological understanding of the authors' ideas and research. Here the emphasis was on the formalistic character of such notions as command economy and command work which were used in analysing the functioning and the collapse of communist society, although Mr. Ilic passed favourable judgement on the Lazic's critique of political over-determination in its various attempts to explain the disintegration of the communist political (sub)system. The next stage of the analysis was devoted to the problem of empirical identification of the observed phenomena. Here again the notions of the political left and right were of key importance. He sees two specific problems in using these notion in talking about Yugoslavia, the first being that the process of transition in the FR Yugoslavia has hardly begun. The communist government has in effect remained in power continuously since 1945, despite the introduction of a multi-party system in 1990. The process of privatisation of public property was interrupted at a very early stage and the results of this are evident on the structural level in the continuous weakening of the social status of the middle class and on the political level because the social structure and dominant form of property direct the majority of votes towards to communists in power. This has been combined with strong chauvinist confusion associated with the wars in Croatia and Bosnia, and these ideas were incorporated by all the relevant Yugoslav political parties, making it more difficult to differentiate between them empirically. In this context he quotes the situation of the stream of political scientists who emerged in the Faculty of Political Science in Belgrade. During the time of the one-party regime, this faculty functioned as ideological support for official communist policy and its teachers were unable to develop views which differed from the official line, but rather treated all contrasting ideas in the same way, neglecting their differences. Following the introduction of a multi-party system, these authors changed their idea of a public enemy, but still retained an undifferentiated and theoretically undeveloped approach to the issue of the identification of political ideas. The fourth section of the work looked at problems of explanation in studying the political subsystem and the attempts at an adequate causal explanation of the triumph of Slobodan Milosevic's communists at four subsequent elections was identified as the key methodological problem. The main problem Mr. Ilic isolated here was the neglect of structural factors in explaining the voters' choice. He then went on to look at the way empirical evidence is collected and studied, pointing out many mistakes in planning and determining the samples used in surveys as well as in the scientifically incorrect use of results. He found these weaknesses particularly noticeable in the works of representatives of the so-called nationalistic orientation in Yugoslav sociology of politics, and he pointed out the practical political abuses which these methodological weaknesses made possible. He also identified similar types of mistakes in research by Serbian political parties made on the basis of party documentation and using methods of content analysis. He found various none-sided applications of survey data and looked at attempts to apply other sources of data (statistics, official party documents, various research results). Mr. Ilic concluded that there are two main sets of characteristics in modern Yugoslav sociological studies of political subsystems. There are a considerable number of surveys with ambitious aspirations to explain political phenomena, but at the same time there is a clear lack of a developed sociological theory of political (sub)systems. He feels that, in the absence of such theory, most researcher are over-ready to accept the theoretical solutions found for interpretation of political phenomena in other countries. He sees a need for a stronger methodological bases for future research, either 1) in complementary usage of different sources and ways of collecting data, or 2) in including more of a historical dimension in different attempts to explain the political subsystem in Yugoslavia.

Muslim Literature in Serbo-Croat in Relation to the Serbian and Croatian Literatures

Mr. Tutnjevic set out to define the position of the Muslim community within the overall framework of literature in Serbo-Croat, particularly in terms of its relation to the Serbian and Croatian Literatures, on the basis of an extensive comparative study of primary and secondary sources relating to the most important Muslim writers in Serbo-Croat. Carried out against the background of an unprecedented civil war between these national groups, his research focused rather on the encounters between them on the historical and literary stages. He concludes that the Muslim national community was established and developed on a foundation of Slavic self-consciousness and oriental influences. The constantly changing relative weights of the influence of these two factors on the community shaped the specific nature of its literature as well as its place in the cultural environment of its neighbouring national communities, and Muslim literary traditions are inseparably linked with the total literature in Serbo-Croat. A real Muslim literature first emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and virtually all authors writing about this at the time emphasised its educational character and its importance for the process of national identification. At the same time there were visible results of the self-awareness process in which Muslim authors affiliated with Serbian or Croatian literary tradition, sometimes even substituting one with another. During the period between the two world wars Muslim literature reached maturity and while Muslim authors generally focused on their national milieu in terms of subject matter, their forms of expression and their understanding of the function of literature showed the same preoccupation as other Yugoslav authors of the period. When the ideological and class-related concept of society replaced the national character of literature after 1945, Muslim writers found themselves in the same position as writers from other ethnic groups. As in earlier times, writers sought to present themselves to as wide a market as possible and would provide grounds for consideration as Serbian or Croatian writers, sometimes even explicitly presenting themselves as such. Most of the writers of this period are described at times as Yugoslav, at others as Bosnian-Herzegovina, and at still others as Serbian, Croatian or Muslim. Mr. Tutnjevic quotes, for example, the case of Camil Sijaric, a Muslim from Sandzak who also wrote in Sarajevo and falls within the boundaries of Bosnian-Herzegovnian literature, but is also described as a Muslim, Montenegrin and Serbian writer, together with a number of other such examples. An understanding of this process provides the basis for a completely new perception of the intertwining of Serbian, Croatian and Muslim literary traditions, without the earlier visible prejudice on all three sides.

Representing Afghanistan: The United States and Democracy's Imposition

There is an ongoing mission in Afghanistan; a mission driven by external political forces. At its core this mission hopes to establish peace, to protect the populace, and to install democracy. Each of these goals has remained just that, a goal, for the past eight years as the American and international mission in Afghanistan has enjoyed varied levels of commitment. Currently, the stagnant progress in Afghanistan has led the international community to become increasingly concerned about the viability of a future Afghan state. Most of these questions take root in the question over whether or not an Afghan state can function without the auspices of international terrorism. Inevitably, the normative question of what exactly that government should be arises from this base concern. In formulating a response to this question, the consensus of western society has been to install representative democracy. This answer has been a recurring theme in the post Cold War era as states such as Bosnia and Somalia bear witness to the ill effects of external democratic imposition. I hypothesize that the current mold of externally driven state-building is unlikely to result in what western actors seek it to establish: representative democracy. By primarily examining the current situation in Afghanistan, I claim that external installation of representative democracy is modally flawed in that its process mandates choice. Representative democracy by definition constitutes a government reflective of its people, or electorate. Thus, freedom of choice is necessary for a functional representative democracy. From this, one can deduce that because an essential function of democracy is choice, its implementation lies with the presence of choice. State-building is an imposition that eliminates that necessary ingredient. The two stand as polar opposites that cannot effectively collaborate. Security, governing capacity, and development have all been targeted as measurements of success in Afghanistan. The three factors are generally seen as mutually constitutive; so improved security is seen as improving governing capacity. Thus, the recent resurgence of the Taliban in Afghanistan and a deteriorating security environment moving forward has demonstrated the inability of the Afghan government to govern. The primary reason for the Afghan government’s deficiencies is its lack of legitimacy among its constituency. Even the use of the term ‘constituency’ must be qualified because the Afghan government has often oscillated between serving the people within its territorial borders and the international community. The existence of the Afghan state is so dependent on foreign aid and intervention that it has lost policy-making and enforcing power. This is evident by the inability of Afghanistan to engage in basic sovereign state activities as maintaining a national budget, conducting elections, providing for its own national security, and deterring criminality. The Afghan state is nothing more than a shell of a government, and indicative of the failings that external state-building has with establishing democracy.

Agricultural Productivity in the Early Ottoman Empire

This paper provides standardized estimates of labor productivity in arable farming in selected regions of the early Ottoman Empire, including Jerusalem and neighboring districts in eastern Mediterranean; Bursa and Malatya in Anatolia; and Thessaly, Herzegovina, and Budapest in eastern Europe. I use data from the tax registers of the Ottoman Empire to estimate grain output per worker, standardized (in bushels of wheat equivalent) to allow productivity comparisons within these regions and with other times and places. The results suggest that Ottoman agriculture in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had achieved levels of labor productivity that compared favorably even with most European countries circa 1850.

Un momento histórico como piedra de toque en la memoria : "Ojos azules" de Arturo Pérez-Reverte

La propuesta de esta ponencia parte de realizar una lectura del cuento "Ojos azules" del escritor español Arturo Pérez-Reverte, trabajándolo desde distintas miradas, que configuran ejes a investigar. La anécdota narrada sobre un momento elegido del pasado histórico resulta central para españoles y americanos. Ese pasado que es necesariamente interpelado desde un presente que lo significa, se realiza desde la narración que apela a la historia y a las memorias, pero con un juego ficcional que, partiendo de un segmento de un mural de Diego Rivera, según declara el mismo escritor, elabora significaciones sobre esa representación. Esas posibles y múltiples significaciones participan del campo del conocimiento y de la imaginación, lo cual permite construir interpretaciones sobre la acción del pasado en el presente. Por todo ello, el cuento merece ser entrecruzado, en la lectura, con la saga de El capitán Alatriste, en la cual Arturo Pérez-Reverte elabora un fresco literario sobre el siglo XVII español, considerado como punto nodal de la cultura española y, por ende, necesario de ser recuperado discursivamente. Y resulta valioso, por sus aportes, acercar la narración estudiada a la novela El pintor de batallas, texto que trabaja sobre la memoria de la cercana guerra de Bosnia, como recuerdos y olvidos propios del narrador. Resulta adecuado, entonces, imbricar el cuento central de este análisis con los otros relatos nombrados, puesto que en todos se perfila el recuerdo como pasado conflictivo, y también como un intento de acceder, de alguna manera, a un acercamiento inteligible, dentro del marco sugerido y nunca dicho de los "usos" dados a las memorias