Residual function, spontaneous reorganisation and treatment plasticity in homonymous visual field defects

This thesis will focus on the residual function and visual and attentional deficits in human patients, which accompany damage to the visual cortex or its thalamic afferents, and plastic changes, which follow it. In particular, I will focus on homonymous visual field defects, which comprise a broad set of central disorders of vision. I will present experimental evidence that when the primary visual pathway is completely damaged, the only signal that can be implicitly processed via subcortical visual networks is fear. I will also present data showing that in a patient with relative deafferentation of visual cortex, changes in the spatial tuning and response gain of the contralesional and ipsilesional cortex are observed, which are accompanied by changes in functional connectivity with regions belonging to the dorsal attentional network and the default mode network. I will also discuss how cortical plasticity might be harnessed to improve recovery through novel treatments. Moreover, I will show how treatment interventions aimed at recruiting spared subcortical pathway supporting multisensory orienting can drive network level change.

Long-term potentiation and neural network activity in the neonatal rat cerebral cortex in vivo

Long-term potentiation in the neonatal rat rnbarrel cortex in vivo rnLong-term potentiation (LTP) is important for the activity-dependent formation of early cortical circuits. In the neonatal rodent barrel cortex LTP has been so far only studied in vitro. I combined voltage-sensitive dye imaging with extracellular multi-electrode recordings to study whisker stimulation-induced LTP for both the slope of field potential and the number of multi-unit activity in the whisker-to-barrel cortex pathway of the neonatal rat barrel cortex in vivo. Single whisker stimulation at 2 Hz for 10 min induced an age-dependent expression of LTP in postnatal day (P) 0 to P14 rats with the strongest expression of LTP at P3-P5. The magnitude of LTP was largest in the stimulated barrel-related column, smaller in the surrounding septal region and no LTP could be observed in the neighboring barrel. Current source density analyses revealed an LTP-associated increase of synaptic current sinks in layer IV / lower layer II/III at P3-P5 and in the cortical plate / upper layer V at P0-P1. This study demonstrates for the first time an age-dependent and spatially confined LTP in the barrel cortex of the newborn rat in vivo. These activity-dependent modifications during the critical period may play an important role in the development and refinement of the topographic map in the barrel cortex. (An et al., 2012)rnEarly motor activity triggered by gamma and spindle bursts in neonatal rat motor cortexrnSelf-generated neuronal activity generated in subcortical regions drives early spontaneous motor activity, which is a hallmark of the developing sensorimotor system. However, the neuronal activity patterns and functions of neonatal primary motor cortex (M1) in the early movements are still unknown. I combined voltage-sensitive dye imaging with simultaneous extracellular multi-electrode recordings in the neonatal rat S1 and M1 in vivo. At P3-P5, gamma and spindle bursts observed in M1 could trigger early paw movements. Furthermore, the paw movements could be also elicited by the focal electrical stimulation of M1 at layer V. Local inactivation of M1 could significantly attenuate paw movements, suggesting that the neonatal M1 operates in motor mode. In contrast, the neonatal M1 can also operate in sensory mode. Early spontaneous movements and sensory stimulations of paw trigger gamma and spindle bursts in M1. Blockade of peripheral sensory input from the paw completely abolished sensory evoked gamma and spindle bursts. Moreover, both sensory evoked and spontaneously occurring gamma and spindle bursts mediated interactions between S1 and M1. Accordingly, local inactivation of the S1 profoundly reduced paw stimulation-induced and spontaneously occurring gamma and spindle bursts in M1, indicating that S1 plays a critical role in generation of the activity patterns in M1. This study proposes that both self-generated and sensory evoked gamma and spindle bursts in M1 may contribute to the refinement and maturation of corticospinal and sensorimotor networks required for sensorimotor coordination.rn

CHOLINERGIC MODULATION OF THALAMIC INPUT INTO THE CINGULATE CORTEX

This research demonstrates cholinergic modulation of thalamic input into the limbic cortex. A projection from the mediodorsal thalamus (MD) to the anterior cingulate cortex was defined anatomically and physiologically. Injections of horse-radish peroxidase into the anterior cingulate cortex labels neurons in the lateral, parvocellular, region of MD. Electrical Stimulation of this area produces a complex field potential in the anterior cingulate cortex which was further characterized by current density analysis and single cell recordings.^ The monsynaptic component of the response was identified as a large negative field which is maximal in layer IV of the anterior cingulate cortex. This response shows remarkable tetanic potentiation of frequencies near 7 Hz. During a train of 50 or more stimuli, the response would grow quickly and remain at a fairly stable potentiated level throughout the train.^ Cholinergic modulation of this thalamic response was demonstrated by iontophoretic application of the cholinergic agonist carbachol decreased the effectiveness of the thalamic imput by rapidly attenuation the response during a train of stimuli. The effect was apparently mediated by muscarinic receptors since the effect of carbachol was blocked by atropine but not by hexamethonium.^ To determine the source of the cingulate cortex cholinergic innervation, lesions were made in the anterior and medial thalamus and in the nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca. The effects of these lesions on choline acetyltranferase activity in the cingulate cortex were determined by a micro-radio-enzymatical assay. Only the lesions of the nucleus of the diagonal band significantly decreased the choline acetyltransferase activity in the cingulate cortex regions. Therefore, the diagonal band appears to be a major source of sensory cholinergic innervation and may be involved in gating of sensory information from the thalamus into the limbic cortex. Attempts to modulate the cingulate response to MD stimulation with electrical stimulation of the diagonal band, however were not successful.^

POPULATION CODING IN LAMINAR CORTICAL CIRCUITS

One of the fundamental questions in neuroscience is to understand how encoding of sensory inputs is distributed across neuronal networks in cerebral cortex to influence sensory processing and behavioral performance. The fact that the structure of neuronal networks is organized according to cortical layers raises the possibility that sensory information could be processed differently in distinct layers. The goal of my thesis research is to understand how laminar circuits encode information in their population activity, how the properties of the population code adapt to changes in visual input, and how population coding influences behavioral performance. To this end, we performed a series of novel experiments to investigate how sensory information in the primary visual cortex (V1) emerges across laminar cortical circuits. First, it is commonly known that the amount of information encoded by cortical circuits depends critically on whether or not nearby neurons exhibit correlations. We examined correlated variability in V1 circuits from a laminar-specific perspective and observed that cells in the input layer, which have only local projections, encode incoming stimuli optimally by exhibiting low correlated variability. In contrast, output layers, which send projections to other cortical and subcortical areas, encode information suboptimally by exhibiting large correlations. These results argue that neuronal populations in different cortical layers play different roles in network computations. Secondly, a fundamental feature of cortical neurons is their ability to adapt to changes in incoming stimuli. Understanding how adaptation emerges across cortical layers to influence information processing is vital for understanding efficient sensory coding. We examined the effects of adaptation, on the time-scale of a visual fixation, on network synchronization across laminar circuits. Specific to the superficial layers, we observed an increase in gamma-band (30-80 Hz) synchronization after adaptation that was correlated with an improvement in neuronal orientation discrimination performance. Thus, synchronization enhances sensory coding to optimize network processing across laminar circuits. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that individual neurons and local populations synchronize their activity in real-time to communicate information about incoming stimuli, and that the degree of synchronization influences behavioral performance. These analyses assessed for the first time the relationship between changes in laminar cortical networks involved in stimulus processing and behavioral performance.

Local and global attention are mapped retinotopically in human occipital cortex

Clinical evidence suggests that control mechanisms for local and global attention are lateralized in the temporal–parietal cortex. However, in the human occipital (visual) cortex, the evidence for lateralized local/global attention is controversial. To clarify this matter, we used functional MRI to map activity in the human occipital cortex, during local and global attention, with sustained visual fixation. Data were analyzed in a flattened cortical format, relative to maps of retinotopy and spatial frequency peak tuning. Neither local nor global attention was lateralized in the occipital cortex. Instead, local attention and global attention appear to be special cases of visual spatial attention, which are mapped consistently with the maps of retinotopy and spatial frequency tuning, in multiple visual cortical areas.

Spatial heterogeneity of inhibitory surrounds in the middle temporal visual area.

A recurrent theme in the organization of vertebrate visual cortex is that of receptive fields with an associated "silent" opponency component. In the middle temporal area (area MT), a cortical visual area involved in the analysis of retinal motion in primates, this opponency appears in the form of a region outside the classical receptive field (CRF) that in itself gives no response but suppresses responses to motion evoked within the CRF. This antagonistic motion surround has been described as very large and symmetrically arrayed around the CRF. On the basis of this view, the primary function of the surround has long been thought to consist of simple figure-ground segregation based on movement. We have made use of small stimulus patches to map the form and extent of the surround and find evidence that the surround inhibition of many MT cells is in fact confined to restricted regions on one side or on opposite sides of the CRF. Such regions endow MT cells with the ability to make local-to-local motion comparisons, capable of extracting more complex features from the visual environment, and as such, may be better viewed as intrinsic parts of the receptive field, rather than as separate entities responsible for local-to-global comparisons.

Plasticité du cortex visuel: «homéodynamie» des connexions neuronales et modèle d’effets d’antidépresseurs

Les informations sensorielles sont traitées dans le cortex par des réseaux de neurones co-activés qui forment des assemblées neuronales fonctionnelles. Le traitement visuel dans le cortex est régit par différents aspects des caractéristiques neuronales tels que l’aspect anatomique, électrophysiologique et moléculaire. Au sein du cortex visuel primaire, les neurones sont sélectifs à divers attributs des stimuli tels que l’orientation, la direction, le mouvement et la fréquence spatiale. Chacun de ces attributs conduit à une activité de décharge maximale pour une population neuronale spécifique. Les neurones du cortex visuel ont cependant la capacité de changer leur sélectivité en réponse à une exposition prolongée d’un stimulus approprié appelée apprentissage visuel ou adaptation visuelle à un stimulus non préférentiel. De ce fait, l’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’investiguer les mécanismes neuronaux qui régissent le traitement visuel durant une plasticité induite par adaptation chez des animaux adultes. Ces mécanismes sont traités sous différents aspects : la connectivité neuronale, la sélectivité neuronale, les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones et les effets des drogues (sérotonine et fluoxétine). Le modèle testé se base sur les colonnes d’orientation du cortex visuel primaire. La présente thèse est subdivisée en quatre principaux chapitres. Le premier chapitre (A) traite de la réorganisation du cortex visuel primaire suite à une plasticité induite par adaptation visuelle. Le second chapitre (B) examine la connectivité neuronale fonctionnelle en se basant sur des corrélations croisées entre paires neuronales ainsi que sur des corrélations d’activités de populations neuronales. Le troisième chapitre (C) met en liaison les aspects cités précédemment (les effets de l’adaptation visuelle et la connectivité fonctionnelle) aux propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones (deux classes de neurones sont traitées : les neurones à décharge régulière et les neurones à décharge rapide ou burst). Enfin, le dernier chapitre (D) a pour objectif l’étude de l’effet du couplage de l’adaptation visuelle à l’administration de certaines drogues, notamment la sérotonine et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Méthodes En utilisant des enregistrements extracellulaires d’activités neuronales dans le cortex visuel primaire (V1) combinés à un processus d’imagerie cérébrale optique intrinsèque, nous enregistrons l’activité de décharge de populations neuronales et nous examinons l’activité de neurones individuels extraite des signaux multi-unitaires. L’analyse de l’activité cérébrale se base sur différents algorithmes : la distinction des propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones se fait par calcul de l’intervalle de temps entre la vallée et le pic maximal du potentiel d’action (largeur du potentiel d’action), la sélectivité des neurones est basée sur leur taux de décharge à différents stimuli, et la connectivité fonctionnelle utilise des calculs de corrélations croisées. L’utilisation des drogues se fait par administration locale sur la surface du cortex (après une craniotomie et une durotomie). Résultats et conclusions Dans le premier chapitre, nous démontrons la capacité des neurones à modifier leur sélectivité après une période d’adaptation visuelle à un stimulus particulier, ces changements aboutissent à une réorganisation des cartes corticales suivant un patron spécifique. Nous attribuons ce résultat à la flexibilité de groupes fonctionnels de neurones qui étaient longtemps considérés comme des unités anatomiques rigides. En effet, nous observons une restructuration extensive des domaines d’orientation dans le but de remodeler les colonnes d’orientation où chaque stimulus est représenté de façon égale. Ceci est d’autant plus confirmé dans le second chapitre où dans ce cas, les cartes de connectivité fonctionnelle sont investiguées. En accord avec les résultats énumérés précédemment, les cartes de connectivité montrent également une restructuration massive mais de façon intéressante, les neurones utilisent une stratégie de sommation afin de stabiliser leurs poids de connectivité totaux. Ces dynamiques de connectivité sont examinées dans le troisième chapitre en relation avec les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones. En effet, deux modes de décharge neuronale permettent la distinction entre deux classes neuronales. Leurs dynamiques de corrélations distinctes suggèrent que ces deux classes jouent des rôles clés différents dans l’encodage et l’intégration des stimuli visuels au sein d’une population neuronale. Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre, l’adaptation visuelle est combinée avec l’administration de certaines substances, notamment la sérotonine (neurotransmetteur) et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Ces deux substances produisent un effet similaire en facilitant l’acquisition des stimuli imposés par adaptation. Lorsqu’un stimulus non optimal est présenté en présence de l’une des deux substances, nous observons une augmentation du taux de décharge des neurones en présentant ce stimulus. Nous présentons un modèle neuronal basé sur cette recherche afin d’expliquer les fluctuations du taux de décharge neuronale en présence ou en absence des drogues. Cette thèse présente de nouvelles perspectives quant à la compréhension de l’adaptation des neurones du cortex visuel primaire adulte dans le but de changer leur sélectivité dans un environnement d’apprentissage. Nous montrons qu’il y a un parfait équilibre entre leurs habiletés plastiques et leur dynamique d’homéostasie.

Plasticité du cortex visuel: «homéodynamie» des connexions neuronales et modèle d’effets d’antidépresseurs

Les informations sensorielles sont traitées dans le cortex par des réseaux de neurones co-activés qui forment des assemblées neuronales fonctionnelles. Le traitement visuel dans le cortex est régit par différents aspects des caractéristiques neuronales tels que l’aspect anatomique, électrophysiologique et moléculaire. Au sein du cortex visuel primaire, les neurones sont sélectifs à divers attributs des stimuli tels que l’orientation, la direction, le mouvement et la fréquence spatiale. Chacun de ces attributs conduit à une activité de décharge maximale pour une population neuronale spécifique. Les neurones du cortex visuel ont cependant la capacité de changer leur sélectivité en réponse à une exposition prolongée d’un stimulus approprié appelée apprentissage visuel ou adaptation visuelle à un stimulus non préférentiel. De ce fait, l’objectif principal de cette thèse est d’investiguer les mécanismes neuronaux qui régissent le traitement visuel durant une plasticité induite par adaptation chez des animaux adultes. Ces mécanismes sont traités sous différents aspects : la connectivité neuronale, la sélectivité neuronale, les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones et les effets des drogues (sérotonine et fluoxétine). Le modèle testé se base sur les colonnes d’orientation du cortex visuel primaire. La présente thèse est subdivisée en quatre principaux chapitres. Le premier chapitre (A) traite de la réorganisation du cortex visuel primaire suite à une plasticité induite par adaptation visuelle. Le second chapitre (B) examine la connectivité neuronale fonctionnelle en se basant sur des corrélations croisées entre paires neuronales ainsi que sur des corrélations d’activités de populations neuronales. Le troisième chapitre (C) met en liaison les aspects cités précédemment (les effets de l’adaptation visuelle et la connectivité fonctionnelle) aux propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones (deux classes de neurones sont traitées : les neurones à décharge régulière et les neurones à décharge rapide ou burst). Enfin, le dernier chapitre (D) a pour objectif l’étude de l’effet du couplage de l’adaptation visuelle à l’administration de certaines drogues, notamment la sérotonine et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Méthodes En utilisant des enregistrements extracellulaires d’activités neuronales dans le cortex visuel primaire (V1) combinés à un processus d’imagerie cérébrale optique intrinsèque, nous enregistrons l’activité de décharge de populations neuronales et nous examinons l’activité de neurones individuels extraite des signaux multi-unitaires. L’analyse de l’activité cérébrale se base sur différents algorithmes : la distinction des propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones se fait par calcul de l’intervalle de temps entre la vallée et le pic maximal du potentiel d’action (largeur du potentiel d’action), la sélectivité des neurones est basée sur leur taux de décharge à différents stimuli, et la connectivité fonctionnelle utilise des calculs de corrélations croisées. L’utilisation des drogues se fait par administration locale sur la surface du cortex (après une craniotomie et une durotomie). Résultats et conclusions Dans le premier chapitre, nous démontrons la capacité des neurones à modifier leur sélectivité après une période d’adaptation visuelle à un stimulus particulier, ces changements aboutissent à une réorganisation des cartes corticales suivant un patron spécifique. Nous attribuons ce résultat à la flexibilité de groupes fonctionnels de neurones qui étaient longtemps considérés comme des unités anatomiques rigides. En effet, nous observons une restructuration extensive des domaines d’orientation dans le but de remodeler les colonnes d’orientation où chaque stimulus est représenté de façon égale. Ceci est d’autant plus confirmé dans le second chapitre où dans ce cas, les cartes de connectivité fonctionnelle sont investiguées. En accord avec les résultats énumérés précédemment, les cartes de connectivité montrent également une restructuration massive mais de façon intéressante, les neurones utilisent une stratégie de sommation afin de stabiliser leurs poids de connectivité totaux. Ces dynamiques de connectivité sont examinées dans le troisième chapitre en relation avec les propriétés électrophysiologiques des neurones. En effet, deux modes de décharge neuronale permettent la distinction entre deux classes neuronales. Leurs dynamiques de corrélations distinctes suggèrent que ces deux classes jouent des rôles clés différents dans l’encodage et l’intégration des stimuli visuels au sein d’une population neuronale. Enfin, dans le dernier chapitre, l’adaptation visuelle est combinée avec l’administration de certaines substances, notamment la sérotonine (neurotransmetteur) et la fluoxétine (inhibiteur sélectif de recapture de la sérotonine). Ces deux substances produisent un effet similaire en facilitant l’acquisition des stimuli imposés par adaptation. Lorsqu’un stimulus non optimal est présenté en présence de l’une des deux substances, nous observons une augmentation du taux de décharge des neurones en présentant ce stimulus. Nous présentons un modèle neuronal basé sur cette recherche afin d’expliquer les fluctuations du taux de décharge neuronale en présence ou en absence des drogues. Cette thèse présente de nouvelles perspectives quant à la compréhension de l’adaptation des neurones du cortex visuel primaire adulte dans le but de changer leur sélectivité dans un environnement d’apprentissage. Nous montrons qu’il y a un parfait équilibre entre leurs habiletés plastiques et leur dynamique d’homéostasie.

Resolving the organization of the New World monkey third visual complex: The dorsal extrastriate cortex of the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)

We tested current hypotheses on the functional organization of the third visual complex, a particularly controversial region of the primate extrastriate cortex. In anatomical experiments, injections of retrograde tracers were placed in the dorsal cortex immediately rostral to the second visual area (V2) of New World monkeys (Callithrix jacchus), revealing the topography of interconnections between the third tier cortex and the primary visual area (V1). The data indicate the presence of a dorsomedial area (DM), which represents the entire upper and lower quadrants of the visual field, and which receives strong, topographically organized projections from the superficial layers of V1. The visuotopic organization and boundaries of DM were confirmed by electrophysiological recordings in the same animals and by architectural characteristics which were distinct from those found in ventral extrastriate cortex rostral to V2. There was no electrophysiological or histological evidence for a transitional area between V2 and DM. In particular, the central representation of the upper quadrant in DM was directly adjacent to the representation of the horizontal meridian that marks the rostral border of V2. The present results argue in favor of the hypothesis that the third visual complex in New World monkeys contains different areas in its dorsal and ventral components: area DM, near the dorsal midline, and a homolog of area 19 of other mammals, located more lateral and ventrally. The characteristics of DM suggest that it may correspond to visual area 6 (V6) of Old World monkeys. (C) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Ipsilateral corticocortical projections to the primary and middle temporal visual areas of the primate cerebral cortex: area-specific variations in the morphology of connectionally identified pyramidal cells

We quantified the morphology of over 350 pyramidal neurons with identified ipsilateral corticocortical projections to the primary (V1) and middle temporal (MT) visual areas of the marmoset monkey, following intracellular injection of Lucifer Yellow into retrogradely labelled cells. Paralleling the results of studies in which randomly sampled pyramidal cells were injected, we found that the size of the basal dendritic tree of connectionally identified cells differed between cortical areas, as did the branching complexity and spine density. We found no systematic relationship between dendritic tree structure and axon target or length. Instead, the size of the basal dendritic tree increased roughly in relation to increasing distance from the occipital pole, irrespective of the length of the connection or the cortical layer in which the neurons were located. For example, cells in the second visual area had some of the smallest and least complex dendritic trees irrespective of whether they projected to V1 or MT, while those in the dorsolateral area (DL) were among the largest and most complex. We also observed that systematic differences in spine number were more marked among V1-projecting cells than MT-projecting cells. These data demonstrate that the previously documented systematic differences in pyramidal cell morphology between areas cannot simply be attributed to variable proportions of neurons projecting to different targets, in the various areas. Moreover, they suggest that mechanisms intrinsic to the area in which neurons are located are strong determinants of basal dendritic field structure.

Can we observe collective neuronal activity from macroscopic aggregate signals?

The fundamental problem faced by noninvasive neuroimaging techniques such as EEG/MEG1 is to elucidate functionally important aspects of the microscopic neuronal network dynamics from macroscopic aggregate measurements. Due to the mixing of the activities of large neuronal populations in the observed macroscopic aggregate, recovering the underlying network that generates the signal in the absence of any additional information represents a considerable challenge. Recent MEG studies have shown that macroscopic measurements contain sufficient information to allow the differentiation between patterns of activity, which are likely to represent different stimulus-specific collective modes in the underlying network (Hadjipapas, A., Adjamian, P., Swettenham, J.B., Holliday, I.E., Barnes, G.R., 2007. Stimuli of varying spatial scale induce gamma activity with distinct temporal characteristics in human visual cortex. NeuroImage 35, 518–530). The next question arising in this context is whether aspects of collective network activity can be recovered from a macroscopic aggregate signal. We propose that this issue is most appropriately addressed if MEG/EEG signals are to be viewed as macroscopic aggregates arising from networks of coupled systems as opposed to aggregates across a mass of largely independent neural systems. We show that collective modes arising in a network of simulated coupled systems can be indeed recovered from the macroscopic aggregate. Moreover, we show that nonlinear state space methods yield a good approximation of the number of effective degrees of freedom in the network. Importantly, information about hidden variables, which do not directly contribute to the aggregate signal, can also be recovered. Finally, this theoretical framework can be applied to experimental MEG/EEG data in the future, enabling the inference of state dependent changes in the degree of local synchrony in the underlying network.

Topographic mapping and source localization of the pattern onset visual evoked magnetic response

The topography of the visual evoked magnetic response (VEMR) to a pattern onset stimulus was investigated using 4 check sizes and 3 contrast levels. The pattern onset response consists of three early components within the first 200ms, CIm, CIIm and CIIIm. The CIIm is usually of high amplitude and is very consistent in latency within a subject. Half field (HF) stimuli produce their strongest response over the contralateral hemisphere; the RHF stimulus exhibiting a lower positivity (outgoing field) and an upper negativity (ingoing field), rotated towards the midline. LHF stimulation produced the opposite response, a lower negative and an upper positive. Larger check sizes produce a single area of ingoing and outgoing field while smaller checks produce on area of ingoing and outgoing field over each hemisphere. Latency did not appear to vary with change in contrast but amplitudes increased with increasing contrast. A more detailed topographic study incorporating source localisation procedures suggested a source for CIIm - 4cm below the scalp, close to the midline with current flowing towards the lateral surface. Similar depth and position estimates but with opposite polarity were obtained for the pattern shift P100m previously. Hence, the P100m and the CIIm may originate in similar areas of visual cortex but reveal different aspects of visual processing. © 1992 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

The influence of age on the pattern and flash visual evoked magnetic response (VEMR)

The visual evoked magnetic response (VEMR) was measured over the occipital cortex to pattern and flash stimuli in 86 normal subjects aged 15-86 years. The latency of the major positive component (outgoing magnetic field) to the pattern reversal stimulus (P100M) increased with age, particularly after 55 years, while the amplitude of the P100M decreased more gradually over the lifespan. By contrast, the latency of the major positive component to the flash stimulus (P2M) increased more slowly with age after about 50 years, while its amplitude may have decreased in only a proportion of the elderly subjects. The changes in the P100M with age may reflect senile changes in the eye and optic nerve, e.g. senile miosis, degenerative changes in the retina or geniculostriate deficits. The P2M may be more susceptible to senile changes in the visual cortex. The data suggest that the contrast channels of visual information processing deteriorate more rapidly with age than the luminance channels.

Development and application of magnetoencephalographic methods in the investigation of the human visual system

This thesis is an exploration of the organisation and functioning of the human visual system using the non-invasive functional imaging modality magnetoencephalography (MEG). Chapters one and two provide an introduction to the ‘human visual system and magnetoencephalographic methodologies. These chapters subsequently describe the methods by which MEG can be used to measure neuronal activity from the visual cortex. Chapter three describes the development and implementation of novel analytical tools; including beamforming based analyses, spectrographic movies and an optimisation of group imaging methods. Chapter four focuses on the use of established and contemporary analytical tools in the investigation of visual function. This is initiated with an investigation of visually evoked and induced responses; covering visual evoked potentials (VEPs) and event related synchronisation/desynchronisation (ERS/ERD). Chapter five describes the employment of novel methods in the investigation of cortical contrast response and demonstrates distinct contrast response functions in striate and extra-striate regions of visual cortex. Chapter six use synthetic aperture magnetometry (SAM) to investigate the phenomena of visual cortical gamma oscillations in response to various visual stimuli; concluding that pattern is central to its generation and that it increases in amplitude linearly as a function of stimulus contrast, consistent with results from invasive electrode studies in the macaque monkey. Chapter seven describes the use of driven visual stimuli and tuned SAM methods in a pilot study of retinotopic mapping using MEG; finding that activity in the primary visual cortex can be distinguished in four quadrants and two eccentricities of the visual field. Chapter eight is a novel implementation of the SAM beamforming method in the investigation of a subject with migraine visual aura; the method reveals desynchronisation of the alpha and gamma frequency bands in occipital and temporal regions contralateral to observed visual abnormalities. The final chapter is a summary of main conclusions and suggested further work.

Synchronization processes in nonlinear systems and their relation to cortical oscillatory dynamics

This thesis was focused on theoretical models of synchronization to cortical dynamics as measured by magnetoencephalography (MEG). Dynamical systems theory was used in both identifying relevant variables for brain coordination and also in devising methods for their quantification. We presented a method for studying interactions of linear and chaotic neuronal sources using MEG beamforming techniques. We showed that such sources can be accurately reconstructed in terms of their location, temporal dynamics and possible interactions. Synchronization in low-dimensional nonlinear systems was studied to explore specific correlates of functional integration and segregation. In the case of interacting dissimilar systems, relevant coordination phenomena involved generalized and phase synchronization, which were often intermittent. Spatially-extended systems were then studied. For locally-coupled dissimilar systems, as in the case of cortical columns, clustering behaviour occurred. Synchronized clusters emerged at different frequencies and their boundaries were marked through oscillation death. The macroscopic mean field revealed sharp spectral peaks at the frequencies of the clusters and broader spectral drops at their boundaries. These results question existing models of Event Related Synchronization and Desynchronization. We re-examined the concept of the steady-state evoked response following an AM stimulus. We showed that very little variability in the AM following response could be accounted by system noise. We presented a methodology for detecting local and global nonlinear interactions from MEG data in order to account for residual variability. We found crosshemispheric nonlinear interactions of ongoing cortical rhythms concurrent with the stimulus and interactions of these rhythms with the following AM responses. Finally, we hypothesized that holistic spatial stimuli would be accompanied by the emergence of clusters in primary visual cortex resulting in frequency-specific MEG oscillations. Indeed, we found different frequency distributions in induced gamma oscillations for different spatial stimuli, which was suggestive of temporal coding of these spatial stimuli. Further, we addressed the bursting character of these oscillations, which was suggestive of intermittent nonlinear dynamics. However, we did not observe the characteristic-3/2 power-law scaling in the distribution of interburst intervals. Further, this distribution was only seldom significantly different to the one obtained in surrogate data, where nonlinear structure was destroyed. In conclusion, the work presented in this thesis suggests that advances in dynamical systems theory in conjunction with developments in magnetoencephalography may facilitate a mapping between levels of description int he brain. this may potentially represent a major advancement in neuroscience.