Monitoreo de la fauna silvestre en bosque tropical seco secundario, Nandarola, Nandaime, Nicaragua

Los animales silvestres obtienen refugio, hábitat, alimento y agua de la cobertura que les ofrece la vegetación dentro del bosque. En los años 60s, la mayoría de las áreas boscosas de Nandarola fueron deforestadas y usadas en la producción agrícola de granos (frijoles, maíz, arroz) y áreas ganaderas. Los campos fueron recientemente abandonados y están siendo colonizados por un joven bosque secundario (González, 2005). La fauna silvestre también sufre procesos de colonización de las áreas abandonadas, de esta forma, es importante conocer que especies son las primeras en ser parte de esa colonización y evaluar los cambios en composición de las comunidades animales en el tiempo, principalmente porque muchos vegetales dependen de éstos para realizar procesos biológicos y ecológicos tan importantes como lo son la dispersión y la polinización. Hasta el momento se han realizados dos muestreos para el monitoreo de la fauna silvestre en un parche de bosque seco secundario de 3.5 ha en Nandarola, realizándose 17 visitas en el primero (año 2007) y 15 en el segundo (año 2009), distribuidas en ocho meses (octubre-mayo en cada muestreo). El área era agrícola y fue abandonado hace 17 años con fines de convertirlo en área forestal. Para la toma de datos se establecieron seis transectos de 20 x 100 m y seis puntos de conteo de 25 m de radio. Fueron contados e identificados todos los animales silvestres de los grupos mamíferos, aves, reptiles y anfibios mediante la técnica de avistamiento, para los cuales se calculó, se comparó la riqueza, abundancia, diversidad biológica y se describió la composición de especie, la preferencia de hábitat, los hábitos alimenticios y también se determinaron las especies de probable ocurrencia en el área de estudio. En promedio entre los dos muestreos fueron determinaron 113 individuos, agrupados en 35 especies, 34 géneros y 26 familias de fauna silvestre. De estas especies cuatro fueron mamíferos, 21 aves, siete reptiles y tres anfibios. Las familias más representadas según el número de especies fueron: Columbidae (3 especies) e Iguanidae (3). Las especies con mayor promedio de abundancia fueron: Campylorynchus rufinucha (22.5 individuos), Thryothorus pleurostictus (11.5), Calocitta formosa (10.5), Turdus grayi (8), Pachyrampuhus aglaiae (7), Eumomota supersiliosa (6.5) y Trogon melanocephalus (6). La abundancia y la riqueza no varió significativamente entre los muestreos, la diversidad fue mayor en el primero, debido al aumento de la dominancia específica (principalmente por Campylorynchus rufinucha ) en el segundo muestreo. El grupo de los mamíferos, reptiles y anfibios fue poco representado en el área de estudio, pudiéndose deber a factores antropogénicos. El paisaje esta mayormente representado por especies de aves de hábitats abiertos y que se alimentan mayoritariamente de invertebrados y semillas. Por otro lado con una relación menos específica los mamíferos y reptiles fueron principalmente de hábitats generalistas y mayormente consumidores de frutas, hierbas y vertebrados. Entre las especies de probable ocurrencia en el área de estudio se determinaron: Bufo coccifer, Boa constrictor, Ctenosaura similis, Mabuya unimarginata, Amazilia rutila, Aratinga canicularis, Ciccaba virgata, Crax rubra, Polyborus plancus, Dasypus novencintus, Dasyprocta punctata, Felis pardalis, Felis wiedii, Philander opossum, Nasua narica, Odocoileus virginianus, Procyon lotor, Puma concolor, Sylvilagus sp, Tayassu tajacu, entre otros.

Características básicas de Unidades Familiares Productivas en las comunidades de Nueva Esperanza y Buena Vista, en la Reserva Natural Tepec-Xomolth La Patasta, Las Sabanas, Madriz

El presente estudio se realizó en las comunidades de Nueva Esperanza y Buena Vista, que se encuentran dentro del Área protegida Reserva Natural Tepec-Xomolth La Patasta, pertenecientes al municipio de Las Sabanas, departamento de Madriz, con el propósito de evaluar las condiciones de vida de las Unidades Familiares Productivas en ambas comunidades y su relación con los recursos existentes en la reserva natural. La metodología se desarrolló en tres fases: La fase I de selección de los instrumentos y herramientas metodológicas requerida para el diagnóstico rural participativo, diseño de encuestas (etnobotánica, forestal, vegetal y etnozoológica); la fase II de campo consistió en el desarrolló del Diagnóstico Rápido Participativo, recorrido-transecto, elaboración de mapa de la finca y censo de problemas; y en la fase III se analiza toda la información de las encuestas socioeconómicas, índice de calidad de vida de las viviendas, y de las encuestas ambientales, que sirven de base en la elaboración de propuestas básicas para la implementación de un plan de manejo de las unidades familiares productivas. La información recabada de las 164 unidades familiares productivas (61 en Nueva Esperanza y 103 en Buena Vista) indica que el índice de calidad de vida de las viviendas (ICVV) es considerado en el rango de bajo nivel de vida. La edad del 80% de la población en ambas comunidades es inferior a los 40 años y con una tasa promedio de analfabetismo, superior a la media nacional. La mayoría de los pobladores se dedican a la agricultura, siendo el 70% de ellos catalogados como pequeños productores; comercializan en su mayoría maíz (Zea mays L), frijol (Phaseolus vulgaris L) y café (Coffea arabica L), 20 especies frutales y 15 tipos de hortalizas. En la fauna sobresalen aves (34%), reptiles (9%), anfibios (4%) y mamíferos (53%). La vegetación es muy variada, se identificaron 39 especies forestales, 40 especies vegetales silvestres y domesticas de variado usos (madera, leña, medicinales y otros). La propuesta básica de manejo del Área protegida incluye cinco componentes (estudio de línea base, manejo del recurso suelo, recurso agua, priorización de áreas fragmentadas y fincas demostrativas).

Caracterización socioeconómica y ambiental de Bartola, Bijagua y Juana, El Castillo, Río San Juan, 2013-2014

El estudio de caracterización socioeconómica y ambiental se realizó en las comunidades de Bartola, Bijagua y Juana en la zona de amortiguamiento de la Reserva Biológica Indio Maíz, en El Castillo, Rio San Juan. La realización de este trabajo es producto de poner en práctica la metodología del diagnóstico rural participativo bajo el enfoque de análisis de sistemas de producción. En las entrevistas que se realizaron la especie de río que más presencia tiene para la población es la machaca, en Bartola y Juana en los reptiles tiene mayor presencia el caimán y la tortuga negrita en Bijagua, en los mamíferos según pobladores de Bartola existe más presencia de Jaguar, en Juana la Guardatinaja y en Bijagua el Cusuco, el reporte de avistamiento de aves en las tres comunidades predomina la Lapa Verde. La tipología de productores según el ingreso total del hogar permitió identificar que en la comunidad de Bartola el caso 1 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de banano, yuca, quequisque, cacao, ganado y recibe ingresos extra-agrícolas por la venta de mano de obra en Costa Rica, el caso 2 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de yuca, arroz y tiene ganado, el caso 3 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de: granos básicos, tubérculos, ganado bovino, musáceas y cacao; el caso 4 es pequeño productor de granos básicos. Se identificó que los 4 casos están en un nivel de infra-subsistencia o extrema pobreza. En la comunida d de Bijagua el caso 5 es una pequeña productora agropecuaria de cacao, yuca, maíz, banano, ganado bovino y obtiene ingresos extra-agrícolas por la venta de mano de obra en Costa Rica, el caso 6 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de: maíz, frijol, yuca, ganado menor, ganado mayor e ingresos extra agrícolas, el caso 7 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de granos básicos, cacao, raicilla y ganado mayor con fines de doble propósito. Se identificó que los tres estudios de casos están en un nivel de infra - subsistencia o extrema pobreza. En la comunidad Juana el caso 8 es un gran productor agropecuario de granos básicos, cacao, musáceas, tubérculos , aves de corral, ganado menor, ganado mayor, el caso 9 es un pequeño productor agrícola de quequisque, raicilla y maíz, el caso 10 es un gran productor agropecuario de plátano, maíz, cacao, bovinos, ovinos y hace uso de ingreso extra-agrícola, el caso 11 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de yuca, posee ganado bovino y hace uso de ingresos extra agrícolas como trabajador de un medio de transporte y el caso 12 es un pequeño productor agropecuario de cacao, ganado bovino y obtiene ingresos extra agrícolas. En esta comunidad se identificó que el caso 8 y 10 se encuentran en un nivel de reproducción ampliada, fuera del límite de la pobreza o en un nivel de capitalización con mayor capacidad de inversión en las unidades de producción, mientras que el caso 9, 11 y 12 se identificaron en un nivel de infra-subsistencia o extrema pobreza

Composição e abundância das espécies de anfíbios e répteis em uma paisagem fragmentada de Mata Atlântica no Estado do Rio de Janeiro

Neste estudo, procuramos avaliar a composição e abundância de espécies de anfíbios e répteis em uma paisagem fragmentada de Mata Atlântica, no município de Cachoeiras de Macacu, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Amostramos a herpetofauna da região na área contínua de floresta da Reserva Ecológica de Guapiaçu (REGUA), em 12 fragmentos do entorno com tamanhos e graus de isolamento diferentes, e áreas de pasto (matriz). Utilizamos para amostragem destes animais as metodologias de buscas ativas visuais e armadilhas de interceptação e queda, além de encontros ocasionais. No total foram registradas 55 espécies de anfíbios anuros pertencentes a 12 famílias e entre os répteis foram registradas 26 espécies, sendo uma espécie de anfisbena, uma de jacaré, nove de lagartos e 15 de serpentes. Para os anfíbios, houve uma dominância de espécies da família Hylidae, que representaram mais da metade do total de espécies encontradas no estudo. Já entre os répteis, houve uma predominância de espécies de serpentes da família Dipsadidae. Considerando apenas os registros feitos pelas metodologias empregadas, a área contínua de floresta da REGUA possui uma riqueza de espécies de anfíbios (N = 30) e de lagartos (N = 4) menor do que o conjunto de fragmentos (N = 36 e N = 8), mas superior ao que foi encontrado na matriz (N = 25 e N = 1). Entretanto, para os anfíbios, mais de um terço das espécies (N = 11) que ocorreu na mata contínua não ocorreu nos fragmentos ou na matriz, o que sugere que estas espécies podem ser mais sensíveis a alterações do hábitat. A maior riqueza de espécies encontrada no conjunto de fragmentos pode ser parcialmente explicada pelo fato de muitas espécies tanto de anfíbios quanto de lagartos que são típicas de áreas abertas, terem sua ocorrência favorecida neste tipo de condição de ambiente relativamente menos fechado dos fragmentos. Quando avaliamos o efeito de métricas da paisagem, observamos diferentes respostas entre os anfíbios e os lagartos. Enquanto para os anfíbios houve uma tendência de fragmentos mais distantes terem uma menor riqueza de espécies e de modos reprodutivos associados a estas espécies, para os lagartos a área dos fragmentos parece ser uma importante variável na estruturação das comunidades. Entretanto, por particularidades das características fisiológicas e ecológicas de anfíbios e lagartos, é possível que outros fatores expliquem a distribuição diferenciada das espécies. De forma geral, as áreas de matriz amostradas pareceram ser hostis a espécies florestais tanto de anfíbios quanto de lagartos. Além disso, para anfíbios, a presença de ambientes reprodutivos pode ser fator crucial para a ocorrência de algumas espécies. De forma similar ao encontrado em outros estudos, para a manutenção da diversidade de anfíbios e lagartos na paisagem fragmentada tratada neste estudo é necessário preservar o grande bloco florestal e aumentar a conectividade deste com os fragmentos, o que poderia permitir a área contínua servir de área-fonte de dispersores para os remanescentes florestais.

Herpetofaunal Inventories of the National Parks of South Florida and the Caribbean: Volume II. Virgin Islands National Park

Amphibian declines and extinctions have been documented around the world, often in protected natural areas. Concern for this alarming trend has focused attention on the need to document all species of amphibians that occur within U.S. National Parks and to search for any signs that amphibians may be declining. This study, an inventory of amphibian species in Virgin Islands National Park, was conducted from 2001 to 2003. The goals of the project were to create a georeferenced inventory of amphibian species, use new analytical techniques to estimate proportion of sites occupied by each species, look for any signs of amphibian decline (missing species, disease, die-offs, etc.), and to establish a protocol that could be used for future monitoring efforts. Several sampling methods were used to accomplish these goals. Visual encounter surveys and anuran vocalization surveys were conducted in all habitats throughout the park to estimate the proportion of sites or proportion of area occupied (PAO) by amphibian species in each habitat. Line transect methods were used to estimate density of some amphibian species and double observer analysis was used to refine counts based on detection probabilities. Opportunistic collections were used to augment the visual encounter methods for rare species. Data were collected during four sampling periods and every major trail system throughout the park was surveyed. All of the amphibian species believed to occur on St. John were detected during these surveys. One species not previously reported, the Cuban treefrog (Osteopilus septentrionalis), was also added to the species list. That species and two others (Eleutherodactylus coqui and Eleutherodactylus lentus) bring the total number of introduced amphibians on St. John to three. We detected most of the reptile species thought to occur on St. John, but our methods were less suitable for reptiles compared to amphibians. No amphibian species appear to be in decline at this time. We found no evidence of disease or of malformations. Our surveys provide a snapshot picture of the status of the amphibian species, so continued monitoring would be necessary to determine long-term trends, but several potential threats to amphibians were identified. Invasive species, especially the Cuban treefrog, have the potential to decrease populations of native amphibians. Introduced mammalian predators are also a potential threat, especially to the reptiles of St. John, and mammalian grazers might have indirect effects on amphibians and reptiles through habitat modification. Finally, loss of habitat to development outside the park boundary could harm some important populations of amphibians and reptiles on the island.

Diet and condition of American Alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)in three central Florida lakes

Understanding the diet of crocodilians is important because diet affects condition, behavior, growth, and reproduction. By examining the diet of crocodilians, valuable knowledge is gained about predator-prey interactions and prey utilization among habitats. In this study, I examined the diet and condition of adult American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in three central Florida lakes, Griffin, Apopka, and Woodruff. Two hundred adult alligators were captured and lavaged from March through October 2001, from April through October 2002, and from April through August 2003. Alligators ate a variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey, but vertebrates were more abundant and fish dominated alligator diets in the lakes. Species composition of fish varied among the lakes. The majority of the diet of alligators from Lakes Apopka and Woodruff was fish, 90% and 84% respectively. Lake Apopka alligators consumed a significantly (P = 0.006) higher proportion of fish in their diet. Fish were 54% of the diet of Lake Griffin alligators and the infrequent occurrence of reptiles, mammals, birds, and amphibians often resulted in a large biomass. Differences in alligator diets among lakes may be due to differences in sample size (higher numbers of samples from Lake Griffin), prey availability, habitat, prey vulnerability, or prey size. Alligator condition (Fulton’s Condition Factor, K) was significantly (P < 0.001) different among the lakes. Alligators from Lake Apopka had the highest condition, followed by those from Lake Griffin, and alligators from Lake Woodruff had the lowest condition. Composition of fish along with diversity and equitability of fish in alligator diets may have contributed to differences in condition among lakes. Condition was probably also due to factors other than diet such as alligator hunting behavior, alligator density, or year-round optimal temperature that prolongs feeding. The observed diet and condition differences probably reflect both habitat differences and prey availability in these three lakes.

Herpetofaunal Inventories of the National Parks of South Florida and the Caribbean: Volume III. Big Cypress National Preserve

Amphibian declines and extinctions have been documented around the world, often in protected natural areas. Concern for this trend has prompted the U.S. Geological Survey and the National Park Service to document all species of amphibians that occur within U.S. National Parks and to search for any signs that amphibians may be declining. This study, an inventory of amphibian species in Big Cypress National Preserve, was conducted from 2002 to 2003. The goals of the project were to create a georeferenced inventory of amphibian species, use new analytical techniques to estimate proportion of sites occupied by each species, look for any signs of amphibian decline (missing species, disease, die-offs, and so forth.), and to establish a protocol that could be used for future monitoring efforts. Several sampling methods were used to accomplish these goals. Visual encounter surveys and anuran vocalization surveys were conducted in all habitats throughout the park to estimate the proportion of sites or proportion of area occupied (PAO) by each amphibian species in each habitat. Opportunistic collections, as well as limited drift fence data, were used to augment the visual encounter methods for highly aquatic or cryptic species. A total of 545 visits to 104 sites were conducted for standard sampling alone, and 2,358 individual amphibians and 374 reptiles were encountered. Data analysis was conducted in program PRESENCE to provide PAO estimates for each of the anuran species. All of the amphibian species historically found in Big Cypress National Preserve were detected during this project. At least one individual of each of the four salamander species was captured during sampling. Each of the anuran species in the preserve was adequately sampled using standard herpetological sampling methods, and PAO estimates were produced for each species of anuran by habitat. This information serves as an indicator of habitat associations of the species and relative abundance of sites occupied, but it will also be useful as a comparative baseline for future monitoring efforts. In addition to sampling for amphibians, all encounters with reptiles were documented. The sampling methods used for detecting amphibians are also appropriate for many reptile species. These reptile locations are included in this report, but the number of reptile observations was not sufficient to estimate PAO for reptile species. We encountered 35 of the 46 species of reptiles believed to be present in Big Cypress National Preserve during this study, and evidence exists of the presence of four other reptile species in the Preserve. This study found no evidence of amphibian decline in Big Cypress National Preserve. Although no evidence of decline was observed, several threats to amphibians were identified. Introduced species, especially the Cuban treefrog (Osteopilus septentrionalis), are predators and competitors with several native frog species. The recreational use of off-road vehicles has the potential to affect some amphibian populations, and a study on those potential impacts is currently underway. Also, interference by humans with the natural hydrologic cycle of south Florida has the potential to alter the amphibian community. Continued monitoring of the amphibian species in Big Cypress National Preserve is recommended. The methods used in this study were adequate to produce reliable estimates of the proportion of sites occupied by most anuran species, and are a cost-effective means of determining the status of their populations.

Padrões de assimetria associados à ecologia de cinco espécies de lagartos tropicais Cnemidophorus (Squamata, Teiidae) em áreas de restinga ao longo da costa leste brasileira

O estudo da instabilidade do desenvolvimento (ID) em organismos pode ser útil para identificar os primeiros sinais de estresse ambiental. Alterações na ID também influenciam a aptidão dos organismos. A variação entre a simetria dos lados esquerdo e direito, manifestada como assimetria flutuante (AF), é um indicador da ID. Ao quantificarmos a literatura científica referente aos estudos de assimetria em répteis identificamos as seguintes tendências: perturbações ambientais aumentam a AF nas populações, fêmeas tendem a escolher machos com características sexuais simétricas, a instabilidade térmica durante o desenvolvimento do ovo pode produzir indivíduos com maior assimetria, a ocorrência de lesões é mais frequente em indivíduos assimétricos para um determinado lado e há uma correlação negativa entre a assimetria e o desempenho locomotor. Considerando os nossos critério de busca, não encontramos estudos sobre assimetria em répteis na América do Sul. Neste estudo, utilizamos diferentes caracteres merísticos e métricos bilaterais para identificar a AF em diferentes populações de cinco espécies de lagartos do gênero Cnemidophorus (C. abaetensis, C. lacertoides, C. littoralis, C. nativo, C. ocellifer) em 15 áreas de restinga ao longo da costa leste do Brasil. A AF foi maior em populações de Cnemidophorus com maior densidade, menor em populações de restingas com maior degradação ambiental e a sua relação com a concentração de mercúrio variou dependendo da espécie. Provavelmente os agentes estressores ambientais avaliados atuam com intensidades diferentes. O nível de degradação ambiental e a concentração de mercúrio causariam a deterioração precoce dos indivíduos com maiores valores de AF. Isso resulta em uma relação inversa entre esses estresses e a AF das populações. Indivíduos com vestígios de autotomia caudal tiveram maiores valores de AF, o que pode ser um indicativo de que indivíduos com menor aptidão efetuam mais autotomia caudal do que aqueles com maior aptidão. Lagartos com evidências de autotomia também tiveram maior tamanho corpóreo, provavelmente devido a estes estarem expostos a mais tempo aos riscos de predação. Não encontramos diferenciação entre as espécies na frequência de autotomia caudal sendo esta talvez melhor explicada por fatores ambientais como a intensidade de predação. Os índices de AF para caracteres múltiplos se mostraram mais eficientes do que a AF de caracteres individuais nas comparações entre indivíduos vivendo em populações com diferentes níveis de estresse e entre indivíduos com e sem autotomia caudal

Desenvolvimento de um instrumento de avaliação da vulnerabilidade de pacientes imunodeprimidos a infecções zoonóticas a partir de animais de estimação.

Os animais de estimação podem ser fonte de infecções, principalmente para seres humanos imunocomprometidos, em especial, pacientes portadores do vírus HIV. Considerando que o contato com animais pode prover benefícios emocionais, profissionais da área da saúde, em particular médicos e médicos veterinários, devem estar conscientes do papel potencial destes animais na transmissão de doenças de forma a preconizar medidas profiláticas para que esta transmissão não ocorra. As circunstâncias que favorecem a transmissão de doenças a partir dos animais de estimação ainda não são totalmente conhecidas, principalmente na realidade brasileira. Faltam estudos com o objetivo de investigar o risco de doenças de origem zoonótica decorrentes do contato com estes animais, hoje também chamados de animais pet. Ademais, ressente-se da falta de um instrumento devidamente elaborado e validado com a finalidade de captar as informações necessárias para a realização de estudos deste tipo ou mesmo para servir como ferramenta de rastreio de situações de vulnerabilidade de pacientes imunodeprimidos com vistas ao aconselhamento sobre medidas de prevenção. Desta maneira, o objetivo deste estudo é elaborar um instrumento para averiguar a vulnerabilidade de pacientes imunodeprimidos a infecções zoonóticas a partir de animais de estimação. Inicialmente, foram mapeados os animais de estimação mais encontrados no ambiente doméstico e as principais infecções que podem ser transmitidas a partir deles. Selecionaram-se, então, os possíveis mecanismos de transmissão a serem abordados. Dentre as espécies de animais de estimação elencadas, os cães, gatos, aves, répteis e os pequenos roedores foram os selecionados para a confecção deste instrumento. As infecções selecionadas foram: Salmonelose; Criptosporidíase; Giardíase; Dermatofitoses, Esporotricose, Bartonelose; Ancilostomíase; Toxocaríase; Psitacose; Toxoplasmose; Escabiose; Campilobacteriose; Criptococose e Histoplasmose. Considerando as diferentes formas de transmissão de cada infecção foram identificados os possíveis atos e comportamentos no contato com animais de estimação, bem como características destes animais, que poderiam aumentar a probabilidade de transmissão. O instrumento desenvolvido foi composto de uma primeira parte abarcando os critérios de elegibilidade, e de outra envolvendo o escopo principal do instrumento. Como as características de contato e as infecções variam de acordo com a espécie de animal, o instrumento abordou cada um dos cinco grupos de animais separadamente. O instrumento aqui proposto concerne à etapa inicial de um processo de desenvolvimento formal para utilização em futuras pesquisas sobre o papel dos animais de estimação na transmissão de infecções para pacientes imunodeprimidos. Estudos que explorem a confiabilidade e validade do instrumento proposto, assim como sua aceitabilidade, são necessários antes que seu uso seja recomendado.

The First Gene-encoded Amphibian Neurotoxin

Many gene-encoded neurotoxins with various functions have been discovered in fish, reptiles, and mammals. A novel 60-residue neurotoxin peptide (anntoxin) that inhibited tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTX-S) voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) was purified and c

菜阳河自然保护区两栖爬行动物调查报告

："))) 年( * ’ 月对云南省思茅菜阳河省级自然保护区两栖爬行动物多样性进行了调查。调查结果表明：菜 阳河自然保护区共有两栖爬行动物+, 种。其中，两栖类#, 种，隶属于" 目’ 科!+ 属；爬行类() 种，隶属于# 目!- 科$! 属。属于国家!级重点保护的种类有" 种；"级重点保护的种类有( 种；云南省省级保护动物# 种； 列入云南省“三有”动物的!) 种。结合调查结果，对菜阳河自然保护区提出了进行功能区划，分区管理，以及 严格管理农药的使用等两方面的建议。

Marine Vertebrates and Low Frequency Sound: Technical Report for LFA EIS

Over the past 50 years, economic and technological developments have dramatically increased the human contribution to ambient noise in the ocean. The dominant frequencies of most human-made noise in the ocean is in the low-frequency range (defined as sound energy below 1000Hz), and low-frequency sound (LFS) may travel great distances in the ocean due to the unique propagation characteristics of the deep ocean (Munk et al. 1989). For example, in the Northern Hemisphere oceans low-frequency ambient noise levels have increased by as much as 10 dB during the period from 1950 to 1975 (Urick 1986; review by NRC 1994). Shipping is the overwhelmingly dominant source of low-frequency manmade noise in the ocean, but other sources of manmade LFS including sounds from oil and gas industrial development and production activities (seismic exploration, construction work, drilling, production platforms), and scientific research (e.g., acoustic tomography and thermography, underwater communication). The SURTASS LFA system is an additional source of human-produced LFS in the ocean, contributing sound energy in the 100-500 Hz band. When considering a document that addresses the potential effects of a low-frequency sound source on the marine environment, it is important to focus upon those species that are the most likely to be affected. Important criteria are: 1) the physics of sound as it relates to biological organisms; 2) the nature of the exposure (i.e. duration, frequency, and intensity); and 3) the geographic region in which the sound source will be operated (which, when considered with the distribution of the organisms will determine which species will be exposed). The goal in this section of the LFA/EIS is to examine the status, distribution, abundance, reproduction, foraging behavior, vocal behavior, and known impacts of human activity of those species may be impacted by LFA operations. To focus our efforts, we have examined species that may be physically affected and are found in the region where the LFA source will be operated. The large-scale geographic location of species in relation to the sound source can be determined from the distribution of each species. However, the physical ability for the organism to be impacted depends upon the nature of the sound source (i.e. explosive, impulsive, or non-impulsive); and the acoustic properties of the medium (i.e. seawater) and the organism. Non-impulsive sound is comprised of the movement of particles in a medium. Motion is imparted by a vibrating object (diaphragm of a speaker, vocal chords, etc.). Due to the proximity of the particles in the medium, this motion is transmitted from particle to particle in waves away from the sound source. Because the particle motion is along the same axis as the propagating wave, the waves are longitudinal. Particles move away from then back towards the vibrating source, creating areas of compression (high pressure) and areas of rarefaction (low pressure). As the motion is transferred from one particle to the next, the sound propagates away from the sound source. Wavelength is the distance from one pressure peak to the next. Frequency is the number of waves passing per unit time (Hz). Sound velocity (not to be confused with particle velocity) is the impedance is loosely equivalent to the resistance of a medium to the passage of sound waves (technically it is the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle velocity). A high impedance means that acoustic particle velocity is small for a given pressure (low impedance the opposite). When a sound strikes a boundary between media of different impedances, both reflection and refraction, and a transfer of energy can occur. The intensity of the reflection is a function of the intensity of the sound wave and the impedances of the two media. Two key factors in determining the potential for damage due to a sound source are the intensity of the sound wave and the impedance difference between the two media (impedance mis-match). The bodies of the vast majority of organisms in the ocean (particularly phytoplankton and zooplankton) have similar sound impedence values to that of seawater. As a result, the potential for sound damage is low; organisms are effectively transparent to the sound – it passes through them without transferring damage-causing energy. Due to the considerations above, we have undertaken a detailed analysis of species which met the following criteria: 1) Is the species capable of being physically affected by LFS? Are acoustic impedence mis-matches large enough to enable LFS to have a physical affect or allow the species to sense LFS? 2) Does the proposed SURTASS LFA geographical sphere of acoustic influence overlap the distribution of the species? Species that did not meet the above criteria were excluded from consideration. For example, phytoplankton and zooplankton species lack acoustic impedance mis-matches at low frequencies to expect them to be physically affected SURTASS LFA. Vertebrates are the organisms that fit these criteria and we have accordingly focused our analysis of the affected environment on these vertebrate groups in the world’s oceans: fishes, reptiles, seabirds, pinnipeds, cetaceans, pinnipeds, mustelids, sirenians (Table 1).

IgM, IgD and IgY and their expression pattern in the Chinese soft-shelled turtle Pelodiscus sinensis

Three Ig isotypes, IgM, IgD, and IgA, were previously known in reptiles. Here, in this report we describe IgM, IgD and a novel immunoglobulin heavy-chain isotype upsilon (IgY) in Chinese soft-shelled turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis). The IgM and IgY constant domains are characteristically similar to their counterparts described in other vertebrates. The expression of IgM and IgD were detected at mRNA level early during embryonic development, and their expression increased during further development. However, the IgY expression was not detected in larval turtles until 90 days after hatching-out. The increase in the transcription of these three Ig molecules was analyzed by using real-time PCR in spleen, kidney and blood following the injection of inactivated Aeromonas hydrophila. The primary increase in the expression of these three Igs was observed I week after the first injection, although not statistically significant, and the second injection 2 weeks after the first injection provoked a significant increase in the expression of these Igs, revealing a pattern of primary and secondary antibody response in the turtle. The present study represents the first report on reptile IgY and the pattern of IgM, IgD and IgY transcription in reptiles. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Molecular characterization and expression profiles in response to bacterial infection of Chinese soft-shelled turtle interleukin-8 (IL-8), the first reptilian chemokine gene

In this study, an IL-8 homologue has been cloned and identified from a reptile, Chinese soft-shelled turtle for the first time. The full-length cDNA of turtle IL-8 was 1188 bp and contained a 312 bp open reading frame (ORF) coding for a protein of 104 amino acids. The chemokine CXC domain, which contained Glu-Leu-Arg (ELR) motif and four cysteine residues, was well conserved in turtle IL-8. The 4924 bp genomic DNA of turtle IL-8 contained four exons and three introns. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the amino acid sequence of turtle IL-8 clustered together with birds. RT-PCR analysis showed that turtle IL-8 mRNA was constitutively expressed liver, spleen, kidney, heart, blood and intestine tissues of control turtles. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis further indicated that the turtle IL-8 mRNA expression was apparent in various tissues at 8 h and up-regulated significantly during 8 h-7 d after Aeromonas hydrophila infection. The present studies will help us to understand the evolution of IL-8 molecule and the inflammatory response mechanism in reptiles. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence and the phylogenetic position of Achalinus meiguensis (Reptilia: Squamata)

The mitochondrial genome complete sequence of Achalinus meiguensis was reported for the first time in the present study. The complete mitochondrial genome of A. meiguensis is 17239 bp in length and contains 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA, 2 rRNA, and 2 non-coding regions (Control regions). On the basis of comparison with the other complete mitochondrial sequences reported, we explored the characteristic of structure and evolution. For example, duplication control regions independently occurred in the evolutionary history of reptiles; the pseudo-tRNA of snakes occurred in the Caenophidia; snake is shorter than other vertebrates in the length of tRNA because of the truncations of T psi C arm (less than 5 bp) and "DHU" arm. The phylogenic analysis by MP and BI analysis showed that the phylogenetic position of A. meiguensis was placed in Caenophidia as a sister group to other advanced snakes with the exclusion of Acrochordus granulatus which was rooted in the Caenophidia. Therefore we suggested that the subfamily Xenodermatinae, which contains A. meiguensis, should be raised to a family rank or higher rank. At the same time, based on the phylogenic statistic test, the tree of Bayesian was used for estimating the divergence time. The results showed that the divergence time between Henophidia and Caenophidia was 109.50 Mya; 106.18 Mya for divergence between Acrochordus granulatus and the other snakes of the Caenophidia; the divergence time of A. meiguensis was 103 Mya, and Viperidae diverged from the unilateral of Elapidae and Colubridae was 96.06 Mya.