El estatuto jurídico de los trabajadores nacionales de terceros Estados: especial referencia al Acuerdo de Asociación con Turquía

L'objectiu de la tesi es centra en la definició, en l'àmbit de l'ordenament comunitari, de l'actual estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris assalariats que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat membre. Els treballadors nacionals de tercers països que formen part del mercat de treball regular d'un Estat comunitari, així com els membres de les seves famílies, gaudeixen d'un estatut jurídic fragmentat: els seus drets són variables, depenen de la norma que els regula. En aquest sentit, la situació varia en funció de la llei interna de l'Estat d'acollida, l'existència o no d'acords bilaterals entre l'Estat d'acollida i l'Estat d'origen, i les normes de dret comunitari. Aquesta situació també és diferent atenent a l'existència i el contingut d'un acord extern celebrat per la Comunitat i els seus Estats membres i el país de la nacionalitat de l'immigrant, aquest aspecte centra el present estudi. Els acords que s'analitzen són aquells que juntament amb aspectes econòmics, contenen disposicions relatives als treballadors, i que s'han celebrat, prenent com a base jurídica l'actual article 310 TCE, amb països geogràficament fronterers amb la Unió Europea. D'entre ells, el model a seguir és l'Acord d'Associació amb Turquia, que preveu uns objectius més amplis, com ara la creació d'una unió duanera enfront a la zona de lliure comerç prevista en els altres acords i que s'ha desenvolupat mitjançant les decisions adoptades pel seu Consell d'Associació. Aquest acord ha estat objecte d'una àmplia jurisprudència per part del Tribunal europeu, relativa a l'aplicació i la interpretació de les seves disposicions. A fi de delimitar l'abast de les disposicions de l'Acord, i valorar si es tracta d'un estatut privilegiat respecte del dels altres treballadors extracomunitaris, es comparen les seves disposicions amb les corresponents a les dels acords celebrats amb els països del Magreb, entenent per aquests el Marroc, Tunísia i Algèria i amb els 10 països d' Europa Central i Oriental (els anomenats PECO's). A fi de clarificar l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors extracomunitaris, és necessari entrar a considerar altres aspectes directament relacionats amb aquest estatut, com són les condicions d'accés i de permanència en un Estat, matèries, que, fins a l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam, eren competència exclusiva de cadascun dels Estats membres. De totes maneres, no es fa un estudi comparatiu de les diferents legislacions internes en matèria d'immigració, donat que l'àmbit d'anàlisi es limita a l'ordenament comunitari, i no a l'ordenament intern. La tesi s'estructura en dues parts diferenciades, correspon la primera als 2 Capítols inicials i la segona als altres 3. En els dos primers Capítols se segueix un criteri cronològic, començant amb el Tractat de Roma i culminant amb el Tractat de Niça. En aquests Capítols s'analitzen les possibles bases jurídiques del dret originari que podien haver-se utilitzat, així com la cooperació que varen fer els Estats membres, tant a dins com a fora, de la Unió Europea, en relació a les mesures adoptades destinades a la regulació de l'accés i de l'estatut jurídic dels treballadors immigrants. L'entrada en vigor, l'1 de maig de 1999 del Tractat d'Amsterdam ha suposat un important avenç per a l'atribució de competències a la Comunitat en matèria d'immigració, que queda vinculada al nou objectiu de la creació de l'espai de llibertat, seguretat i justícia. A partir d'aquest moment, s'assumeix la lliure circulació de persones com objectiu propi, que requereix la regulació del control a les fronteres externes, d'asil, de la immigració i de la cooperació dels Estats membres en la prevenció i la lluita contra la delinqüència. Això es concreta en la comunitarització d'una part del Tercer Pilar destinada a visats, asil i immigració, amb l'exclusió del Regne Unit, Irlanda i Dinamarca, i en la integració del cabal Schengen a l'estructura de la Unió Europea, tot i que permetent una exclusió per al Regne Unit i Irlanda. Es crea, doncs, una cooperació sui generis plena de solucions d'enginyeria jurídica, que si bé suposa un avenç, trenca la unitat i l'homogeneïtat del dret comunitari. Tot i aquestes complexitats tècniques que deriven de la reforma del Tractat d'Amsterdam, el nou article 63 en els seus apartats 3 i 4 permet abordar, a través de la coordinació o de l'harmonització, els temes d'interès comú vinculats al fenomen de la immigració. Entre ells, hi ha la possibilitat d'elaborar un estatut comú per als treballadors no comunitaris. Les iniciatives legislatives presentades des de l'entrada en vigor del Tractat d'Amsterdam demostren l'acceleració en l'elaboració i el desenvolupament d'una política comunitària d'immigració, integrada en uns objectius comuns, per primera vegada sembla realista pensar en l'adopció d'un estatut jurídic únic per l'extracomunitari que sigui resident de llarga durada. Tot i que aquest estatut pot quedar configurat com un estàndard mínim de protecció, considero que la seva adopció constituiria un pas de gran rellevància en la clarificació dels drets d'aquest col·lectiu de treballadors. Els altres tres Capítols conformen la segona part de la tesi, dedicada a analitzar l'actual estatut dels treballadors nacionals de tercers Estats. Aquest estatut es caracteritza pel seu caràcter fragmentat, que deriva de la diversitat de les disposicions contingudes en els acords externs. Mitjançant un estudi comparatiu, s'analitzen els objectius, l'estructura, els antecedents i el desenvolupament dels acords celebrats amb Turquia, amb els països del Magreb i amb els PECO's. El contingut dels objectius d'aquests acords constata que ens trobem davant 3 models diferents que reflecteixen una disminució del compromís comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia, en la seva jurisprudència, ha manifestat que tant els acords externs celebrats per la Comunitat, com les decisions adoptades pels òrgans que els desenvolupen, formen part de l'ordenament jurídic comunitari. El Tribunal de Justícia és l'òrgan competent per interpretar-los, contribuint a clarificar el contingut d'aquests instruments jurídics. Aquesta perspectiva es completa amb l'anàlisi de les nocions que recullen els acords externs, a fi de dilucidar si un mateix terme té idèntic contingut, i si, tot i la diversitat dels instruments jurídics utilitzats, tenen una mateixa interpretació jurisprudencial. Per aquest motiu ha estat necessari, que el Tribunal de Justícia determinés l'abast dels diferents conceptes emprats, i clarifiqués si és el mateix que el relatiu als treballadors comunitaris o és diferent. La redacció dels acords estudiats reflecteix un estatut jurídic privilegiat per als treballadors turcs en relació als altres treballadors immigrants. Els treballadors originaris dels països d'Europa Central i Oriental o del Magreb, podran millorar la seva situació actual en la mesura en què les disposicions dels seus respectius acords siguin, en el futur, desenvolupades. De totes maneres, aquesta situació de privilegi que ha estat un fet fins el moment actual, ha canviat amb l'entrada en vigor de diferents lleis d'estrangeria estatals, i pot modificar-se, també, amb el desenvolupament del Tractat d'Amsterdam. Actualment, a un treballador turc li perjudica, més que no beneficia el sistema de terminis que per accedir a un lloc de treball preveu la Decisió 1/80. Els treballadors turcs que formen part del mercat regular de treball d'un Estat membre haurien de quedar protegits pel règim jurídic que els sigui més beneficiós, amb independència de que aquest sigui l'intern de l'Estat d'acollida, el comunitari previst a l'Acord d'Associació i el seu posterior desenvolupament, o el que derivi de les futures directives quan entrin en vigor. Si bé aquestes disposicions dels Acords d'Associació varen ser positives, actualment hauran de ser objecte de modificació, la qual cosa no implica la seva desaparició. El seu contingut haurà de tendir a ressaltar l'especificitat de les relacions que es volen establir amb un tercer Estat concret, establint en aquest sentit un tractament preferent als seus nacionals enfront als altres immigrants, i reconeixent el seu dret de residència com derivat del permís de treball. De tota manera, amb l'entrada en vigor de la directiva relativa a l'estatut dels residents de llarga durada, aquest règim privilegiat només afectarà als immigrants residents legals a l'Estat d'acollida durant els primers 5 anys, és a dir, abans de que se'ls concedeixi el citat estatut.

Doppler lidar measurements of oriented planar ice crystals falling from supercooled and glaciated layer clouds

The properties of planar ice crystals settling horizontally have been investigated using a vertically pointing Doppler lidar. Strong specular reflections were observed from their oriented basal facets, identified by comparison with a second lidar pointing 4° from zenith. Analysis of 17 months of continuous high-resolution observations reveals that these pristine crystals are frequently observed in ice falling from mid-level mixed-phase layer clouds (85% of the time for layers at −15 °C). Detailed analysis of a case study indicates that the crystals are nucleated and grow rapidly within the supercooled layer, then fall out, forming well-defined layers of specular reflection. From the lidar alone the fraction of oriented crystals cannot be quantified, but polarimetric radar measurements confirmed that a substantial fraction of the crystal population was well oriented. As the crystals fall into subsaturated air, specular reflection is observed to switch off as the crystal faces become rounded and lose their faceted structure. Specular reflection in ice falling from supercooled layers colder than −22 °C was also observed, but this was much less pronounced than at warmer temperatures: we suggest that in cold clouds it is the small droplets in the distribution that freeze into plates and produce specular reflection, whilst larger droplets freeze into complex polycrystals. The lidar Doppler measurements show that typical fall speeds for the oriented crystals are ≈ 0.3 m s−1, with a weak temperature correlation; the corresponding Reynolds number is Re ∼ 10, in agreement with light-pillar measurements. Coincident Doppler radar observations show no correlation between the specular enhancement and the eddy dissipation rate, indicating that turbulence does not control crystal orientation in these clouds. Copyright © 2010 Royal Meteorological Society

The 2003 CAP Reform: Accommodating WTO Pressures

In 2003, the EU agreed a major reform of the common agricultural policy (CAP). Its centrepiece was a new Single Payment Scheme (SPS). Policy concerns at the time involved the budget, EU enlargement to the East, the WTO negotiations, and a perception (articulated by Commissioner Fischler) that there should be a shift of budget funds from CAP's Pillar 1 (price and income support) to Pillar 2 (rural development). We outline these concerns, conclude that the WTO was the main driving force of the reforms, set out the key parameters of the new support scheme, and outline some thoughts on the durability of the reformed CAP in the face of continued internal and external pressures.

Quantifying the impact of land-use change on European farmland bird populations

The EU has adopted the European Farmland Bird Index (EFBI) as a Structural and Sustainable Development Indicator and a proxy for wider biodiversity health on farmland. Changes in the EFBI over coming years are likely to reflect how well agri-environment schemes (AES), funded under Pillar 2 (Axis 2) of the Common Agricultural Policy, have been able to offset the detrimental impacts of past agricultural changes and deliver appropriate hazard prevention or risk mitigation strategies alongside current and future agricultural change. The delivery of a stable or positive trend in the EFBI will depend on the provision of sufficient funding to appropriately designed and implemented AES. We present a trait-based framework which can be used to quantify the detrimental impact of land-use change on farmland bird populations across Europe. We use the framework to show that changes in resource availability within the cropped area of agricultural landscapes have been the key driver of current declines in farmland bird populations. We assess the relative contribution of each Member State to the level of the EFBI and explore the relationship between risk contribution and Axis 2 funding allocation. Our results suggest that agricultural changes in each Member State do not have an equal impact on the EFBI, with land-use and management change in Spain having a particularly large influence on its level, and that funding is poorly targeted with respect to biodiversity conservation needs. We also use the framework to predict the EFBI in 2020 for a number of land-use change scenarios. This approach can be used to guide both the development and implementation of targeted AES and the objective distribution of Pillar 2 funds between and within Member States. We hope that this will contribute to the cost-effective and efficient delivery of Rural Development strategy and biodiversity conservation targets.

Putting the S-word back into Sustainability: Can we be more social?

In an era dominated by climate change debate and environmentalism there is a real danger that the important ‘social’ pillar of sustainability drops out of our vocabulary. This can happen at a variety of scales from business level through to building and neighbourhood level regeneration and development. Social sustainability should be at the heart of all housing and mixed-use development but for a variety of reasons tends to be frequently underplayed. The recent English city riots have brought this point back sharply into focus. The relationships between people, places and the local economy all matter and this is as true today as it was in the late 19th century when Patrick Geddes, the great pioneering town planner and ecologist, wrote of ‘place-work-folk’. This paper, commissioned from Tim Dixon, explains what is meant by social sustainability (and how it is linked to concepts such as social capital and social cohesion); why the debate matters during a period when ‘localism’ is dominating political debate; and what is inhibiting its growth and its measurement. The paper reviews best practice in post-occupancy social sustainability metric systems, based on recent research undertaken by the author on Dockside Green in Vancouver, and identifi es some of the key operational issues in mainstreaming the concept within major mixed-use projects. The paper concludes by offering a framework for the key challenges faced in setting strategic corporate goals and objectives; prioritising and selecting the most appropriate investments; and measuring social sustainability performance by identifying the required data sources

Economic rationale for interventions to control livestock disease

Disease in farm animals has significant economic impacts on livestock production and incurs substantial costs for societies. Impacts affect not only livestock farms and the livestock industries but also sectors outside of farming. Important negative externalities of livestock disease include impacts on the health of other producers’ livestock, on human health, and on animal welfare. Good disease risk management/biosecurity and good animal welfare are public goods. Not taking account of these externality and public good aspects can lead to a misallocation of resources for livestock disease control. In such instances, there may be a strong case for government or other authority to intervene to ensure a better use of resources. There are a number of policy instruments that can be implemented for this purpose. One potential instrument is a Farm Animal Health and Welfare Stewardship Scheme funded under Pillar II of the CAP. A number of countries have public–private partnership cost-sharing schemes that aim to share appropriately both responsibilities and costs of epidemic livestock disease. There is a strong future agenda for appropriate intervention by governments in the management of livestock disease risks, including responsibility and cost sharing for livestock disease control, within the European Union and elsewhere.

TRY: a global database of plant traits

Plant traits – the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants and their organs – determine how primary producers respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, influence ecosystem processes and services and provide a link from species richness to ecosystem functional diversity. Trait data thus represent the raw material for a wide range of research from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology to biogeography. Here we present the global database initiative named TRY, which has united a wide range of the plant trait research community worldwide and gained an unprecedented buy-in of trait data: so far 93 trait databases have been contributed. The data repository currently contains almost three million trait entries for 69 000 out of the world's 300 000 plant species, with a focus on 52 groups of traits characterizing the vegetative and regeneration stages of the plant life cycle, including growth, dispersal, establishment and persistence. A first data analysis shows that most plant traits are approximately log-normally distributed, with widely differing ranges of variation across traits. Most trait variation is between species (interspecific), but significant intraspecific variation is also documented, up to 40% of the overall variation. Plant functional types (PFTs), as commonly used in vegetation models, capture a substantial fraction of the observed variation – but for several traits most variation occurs within PFTs, up to 75% of the overall variation. In the context of vegetation models these traits would better be represented by state variables rather than fixed parameter values. The improved availability of plant trait data in the unified global database is expected to support a paradigm shift from species to trait-based ecology, offer new opportunities for synthetic plant trait research and enable a more realistic and empirically grounded representation of terrestrial vegetation in Earth system models.

An interdisciplinary modelling approach asessing the cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental measures on reducing nutrient concentration to WFD thresholds under climate change: the case of the Louros catchment

The application of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) in the European Union (EU) targets certain threshold levels for the concentration of various nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorous being the most important. In the EU, agri-environmental measures constitute a significant component of Pillar 2—Rural Development Policies in both financial and regulatory terms. Environmental measures also are linked to Pillar 1 payments through cross-compliance and the greening proposals. This paper drawing from work carried out in the REFRESH FP7 project aims to show how an INtegrated CAtchment model of plant/soil system dynamics and instream biogeochemical and hydrological dynamics can be used to assess the cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental measures in relation to nutrient concentration targets set by the WFD, especially in the presence of important habitats. We present the procedures (methodological steps, challenges and problems) for assessing the cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental measures at the baseline situation, and climate and land use change scenarios. Furthermore, we present results of an application of this methodology to the Louros watershed in Greece and discuss the likely uses and future extensions of the modelling approach. Finally, we attempt to reveal the importance of this methodology for designing and incorporating alternative environmental practices in Pillar 1 and 2 measures.

iPad use in fieldwork: formal and informal use to enhance pedagogical practice in a bring your own technology world

We report on use of iPads (and other IOS devices) for student fieldwork use and as electronic field notebooks and to promote active. We have used questionnaires and interviews of tutors and students to elicit their views and technology and iPad use for fieldwork. There is some reluctance for academic staff to relinquish paper notebooks for iPad use, whether in the classroom or on fieldwork, as well as use them for observational and measurement purposes. Students too are largely unaware of the potential of iPads for enhancing fieldwork. Apps can be configured for a wide variety of specific uses that make iPads useful for educational as well as social uses. Such abilities should be used to enhance existing practice as well as make new functionality. For example, for disabled students who find it difficult to use conventional note taking. iPads can be used to develop student self-directed learning and for group contributions. The technology becomes part of the students’ personal learning environments as well as at the heart of their knowledge spaces – academic and social. This blurring of boundaries is due to iPads’ usability to cultivate field use, instruction, assessment and feedback processes. iPads can become field microscopes and entries to citizen science and we see the iPad as the main ‘computing’ device for students in the near future. As part of the Bring Your Own Technology/Device (BYOD) the iPad has much to offer although, both staff and students need to be guided in the most effective use for self-directed education via development of Personal Learning Environments. A more student-oriented pedagogy is suggested to correspond to the increasing use of tablet technologies by students

Entrepreneurial dynamics and higher education institutions in the post-communist world

This study draws on the institutional and regional entrepreneurship literature to develop a conceptual framework that analyses the impact of higher education institutions on entrepreneurial dynamics. It is used to examine the cities of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) during the period 1995–2008. Extending the multi-pillar institutional concept, it is found that higher education institutions play a prominent role in fostering entrepreneurial dynamics in CIS cities through multiple channels, including human capital development, cultivating a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship, affecting the perceptions of the knowledge and skills needed to start up a successful business, and knowledge spillovers.

The Commonwealth, gender and peacekeeping

Reflecting on the strategic commitment outlined in the Plan of Action for Gender Equality (2005-2015) and the priority issues of the Commonwealth Women’s Forum, this article assesses the extent to which the Commonwealth as an institution is supporting troop and police-contributing member states in addressing the gender imbalance in peacekeeping operations. Drawing on desk-based research, interviews with international policymakers and a statistical analysis of the International Peace Institute Peacekeeping Database, the article first outlines the Commonwealth’s gender and security policy perspective before examining data sets to determine the success of Commonwealth member states in integrating women into uniformed peacekeeping contingencies between 2009 and 2015. The article observes that, in spite of a renewed optimism and drive to propel women into leadership positions in politics, the judiciary, public bodies and private companies, security sector reform and the implementation of pillar one of the UN Security Council Resolution 1325, is notably absent from the Commonwealth’s gender agenda. It is argued that this policy gap suggests that national and international security architecture is regarded as an accepted domain of masculine privilege. A lack of political will among Commonwealth Heads of Government to mainstream gender equality and facilitate structural transformation of national security organs, and a chronically under resourced Commonwealth Secretariat limits the influence of the institution to that of arms-length promoter of international norms on women, peace and security.

Separation and viability of gill and hepatopancreatic cells of a mangrove crab Ucides cordatus

The gills contain essential cells for respiration and osmoregulation, whereas the hepatopancreas is the site of digestion, absorption, and nutrients storage. The aim of this work was to separate and characterize gill and hepatopancreatic cells of the mangrove crab, Ucides cordatus. For gills, the methodology consisted of an enzymatic cellular dissociation using Trypsin at 0.5%, observation of cellular viability with Tripan Blue, and separation of cells using discontinuous sucrose gradient at concentrations of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. The hepatopancreatic cells were dissociated by magnetic stirring, with posterior separation by sucrose gradient at the same concentrations above. For gills, a high cellular viability was observed (92.5 +/- 2.1%), with hemocyte cells in 10% sucrose layer (57.99 +/- 0.17%, *P < 0.05), principal cells in the 20% sucrose layer (57.33 +/- 0.18, *P < 0.05), and thick cells and pillar cells in the 30% and 40% sucrose layers, respectively (39.54 +/- 0.05%, *P < 0.05; and 41.81 +/- 0.04%, *P < 0.05). The hepatopancreatic cells also showed good viability (79.22 +/- 0.02%), with the observation of embryonic (E) cells in the 10% sucrose layer (67.87 +/- 0.06%, **P < 0.001), resorptive (R) and fibrillar (F) cells in the 20% and 30% sucrose layers (44.71 +/- 0.06%, **P < 0.001, and 43.25 +/- 0.01%, *P < 0.05; respectively), and blister (B) cells in the 40% sucrose layer (63.09 +/- 0.03%, **P < 0.001). The results are a starting point for in vitro studies of heavy metal transport in isolated cells of the mangrove crab U. cordatus, subjected to contamination by metals in the mangrove habitat where they are found.

Population biology and regeneration of forbs and shrubs after fire in Brazilian Campos grasslands

Fire is an important factor in several ecosystems, affecting plant population biology. Campos grasslands are under constant influence of disturbance, mostly grazing and fire. However, few studies evaluated the effect of fire on plant population biology of grassland species. Therefore, we aim to analyze the effect of fire on the population biology of four species, from different functional groups and regeneration strategies: Chaptalia runcinata (forb, resprouter, absence of belowground organ), Vernonia flexuosa (forb, resprouter, presence of rhizophore), Eupatorium ligulaefolium (shrub, resprouter, presence of xylopodium) and Heterothalamus psiadioides (shrub, obligate seeder). Seven plots were established in different sites in southern Brazil: frequently burned (FB) and excluded from fire since 6 years (E). All plots were subjected to controlled burns during summer. Before experiments, populations were sampled. Further observations were carried out after 90 and after 360 days of fire experiments. In addition, we counted the number of seedlings and resprouters recruited after fire. Heat shock experiments were conducted with two species (H. psiadioides and V. flexuosa), as well as the study of the bud bank of the following species: E. ligulaefolium and V. flexuosa. The obligate seeder species had all individuals killed by fire and established only after 1 year. Resprouters, however, showed new stems immediately after fire. E. ligulaefolium and V. flexuosa showed only vegetative regeneration from belowground organs and more individuals in excluded sites 1 year after the fire. The bud bank of E. ligulaefolium tended to be larger in excluded sites, whilst V. flexuosa showed an opposite result. High temperatures did not enhance nor kill seeds from both studied species. Vegetative regeneration was the most important strategy for all studied species, except for H. psiadioides, the obligate seeder species. Fire thus, plays an important role on population structure and demography, being also important for plant recruitment.

FIRE INTENSITY AND SEVERITY IN BRAZILIAN CAMPOS GRASSLANDS

Brazilian Campos grasslands are rich in species and the maintenance of its diversity and physiognomy is dependent on disturbance (e.g. fire and grazing) Nevertheless, studies about fire intensity and severity are inexistent. The present paper describes fire parameters, using 14 experimental burn plots in southern Brazil (30 degrees 02` to 30 degrees 04`S, and 51 degrees 06` to 51 degrees 09`W. 311masl). Two sites under different fire histories were chosen: frequently burned and excluded since six years. Experimental burning was performed during summer (2006-2007), when most burning takes place in these grasslands. The following parameters were measured: air temperature and moisture, vegetation height, wind speed, fuel (fine, coarse), fuel moisture, fire temperatures (soil level and at 50cm), ash, residuals, flame freight, fire duration: burning efficiency and fire intensity were later calculated. Fuel load varied from 0.39 to 1.44kg.m(-2). and correlated positively with both fire temperature and fire intensity. Fire temperatures ranged 47 to 537.5 degrees C. being higher in the excluded site Fire intensity was low compared to grassland elsewhere (36 5-319.5kW.m(-1)), differing significantly between sties Fine fuel was the variable that best explained fire intensity. The results on fire intensity and severity in Campos grasslands can be considered a pilot study, since plots were very small. However the data provided can help other researchers to get permission for experimentation using larger plots The results provide support for further studies about the effects of fire on grassland vegetation and for studies involving fire models and fire risk prediction