La competición en bandas armadas en Europa del Norte durante la Alta Edad Media

El presente artículo es un estudio sobre las actividades competitivas desarrolladas en el seno de las bandas armadas del norte de Europa en la Alta Edad Media: el juego, el reto y el combate, incluyendo los enfrentamientos violentos. Estas actividades no sólo eran una forma de pasatiempos, sino también aspectos muy importantes que revelan parte del funcionamiento de estas bandas. De hecho, podían representar desafíos para la cohesión de la comitiva, pero eran parte de su propia organización. Las comitivas eran dinámicas y sus estructuras siempre cambiaban, y las actividades competitivas, tanto las pacíficas y como las menos, definían y redefinían los rangos dentro del grupo

La competición en bandas armadas en Europa del Norte durante la Alta Edad Media

El presente artículo es un estudio sobre las actividades competitivas desarrolladas en el seno de las bandas armadas del norte de Europa en la Alta Edad Media: el juego, el reto y el combate, incluyendo los enfrentamientos violentos. Estas actividades no sólo eran una forma de pasatiempos, sino también aspectos muy importantes que revelan parte del funcionamiento de estas bandas. De hecho, podían representar desafíos para la cohesión de la comitiva, pero eran parte de su propia organización. Las comitivas eran dinámicas y sus estructuras siempre cambiaban, y las actividades competitivas, tanto las pacíficas y como las menos, definían y redefinían los rangos dentro del grupo

La competición en bandas armadas en Europa del Norte durante la Alta Edad Media

El presente artículo es un estudio sobre las actividades competitivas desarrolladas en el seno de las bandas armadas del norte de Europa en la Alta Edad Media: el juego, el reto y el combate, incluyendo los enfrentamientos violentos. Estas actividades no sólo eran una forma de pasatiempos, sino también aspectos muy importantes que revelan parte del funcionamiento de estas bandas. De hecho, podían representar desafíos para la cohesión de la comitiva, pero eran parte de su propia organización. Las comitivas eran dinámicas y sus estructuras siempre cambiaban, y las actividades competitivas, tanto las pacíficas y como las menos, definían y redefinían los rangos dentro del grupo

Three time-slice simulations of the Eemian (eem), the mid-Holocene (hol), and a pre-industrial (pri) control run with the coupled atmosphere-ocean-model ECHAM5/MPI-OM

Orbital forcing does not only exert direct insolation effects, but also alters climate indirectly through feedback mechanisms that modify atmosphere and ocean dynamics and meridional heat and moisture transfers. We investigate the regional effects of these changes by detailed analysis of atmosphere and ocean circulation and heat transports in a coupled atmosphere-ocean-sea ice-biosphere general circulation model (ECHAM5/JSBACH/MPI-OM). We perform long term quasi equilibrium simulations under pre-industrial, mid-Holocene (6000 years before present - yBP), and Eemian (125 000 yBP) orbital boundary conditions. Compared to pre-industrial climate, Eemian and Holocene temperatures show generally warmer conditions at higher and cooler conditions at lower latitudes. Changes in sea-ice cover, ocean heat transports, and atmospheric circulation patterns lead to pronounced regional heterogeneity. Over Europe, the warming is most pronounced over the north-eastern part in accordance with recent reconstructions for the Holocene. We attribute this warming to enhanced ocean circulation in the Nordic Seas and enhanced ocean-atmosphere heat flux over the Barents Shelf in conduction with retreat of sea ice and intensified winter storm tracks over northern Europe.

Post-glacial pollen record from Yorkshire

The stratigraphy and pollen analysis of the deposits show that this is a lake basin which during the Late-glacial period was partially filled by lake clays and muds. One of the main interests of the pollen diagrams lies in the division of zone i into three suh-zones showing a minor climatic oscillation which seems to be comparable with the Boiling oscillation of northern Europe. During Post-glacial time the greater part of the deposits has been muds but on one side a fen developed which in early zone VI was sufficiently dry to support birch and pine wood. Later in zone VI the water table must have risen slightly because the fen peats were gradually covered by a rather oxidized mud suggesting that the fen became replaced by a shallow swamp with a widely fluctuating water table. In the Atlantic period the basin was reflooded and the more central deposits were covered by a layer of mud. Later in the central region, swamp and eventually Sphagnum bog communities developed. The whole area is now covered by a sihy soil and forms a flat meadowland.

Triassic marine ostracodes of the Australian Margin

Sixty-five species of benthic ostracodes have been discovered in the Triassic sediments of Ocean Drilling Program Leg 122, drilled on the northwestern margin of Australia. Known species were found in the samples studied from the upper Norian-Rhaetian at Holes 759B and 760B and from the Rhaetian at Holes 761C, 764A, and 764B. A large part of material of the recovered ostracodes belong to taxa that are related to ostracodes described in the Tethyan province. Seven species are known from northwestern Europe and five from Iran. Ogmoconcha and Rhombocythere, which are stratigraphically important genera in northern Europe, extend into the Tethyan province. Species of Ogmoconcha are present in Holes 760B, 764A, and 764B. The highly ornate baidiids of the Alpine Tethyan province are dominant in Hole 761C. The affinities with the fauna of Iran noted by Kristan-Tollmann are corroborated by the presence of the genera Mostlerella, Hiatobairdia, and other bairdiids.

Count data of germinated Gonyostomum semen cells and subsequent cell divisions

Colonization of new habitats through dispersal of phytoplankton cysts might be limited, if resident populations outcompete invaders during germination. We reciprocally transferred Gonyostomum semen (Raphidophyceae) cysts from three lakes into native and foreign waters originating from the respective habitats. Germination rate and germling growth were impacted by water origin, but there was no preference for native water. Gonyostomum semen's ability to germinate in different conditions might explain its expansion in northern Europe.

AFLP data based on presence (1) and absence (0) of AFLP loci (A4-F171) in Gonyostomum semen

Many recent studies have found genetically differentiated populations in microorganisms despite potentially high dispersal. We designed a study to specifically examine the importance of physical dispersal barriers, i.e. geographic distance and lack of hydrological connectivity, in restricting gene flow and enhancing divergence in limnic microorganisms. We focused on the nuisance microalga Gonyostomum semen, which has recently expanded in northern Europe and differentiated into genetically distinct populations. Gonyostomum semen was sampled from six lakes distributed in two adjacent watersheds, which thereby comprised, both connected and non-connected lakes. The individual isolates were genotyped by Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism. Several lake populations were differentiated from each other, but connectivity within watersheds could not explain the observed population genetic pattern. However, isolation by distance was moderate and might limit the gene flow among distant populations. In addition, we found low, but significant linkage disequilibrium, which indicates regular sexual recombination in this species, despite its high degree of asexual reproduction. Therefore, we conclude that the genetic properties of microalgae with occasional sexual reproduction essentially mirror regularly recombining species. Furthermore, the data indicated bottlenecks supporting the hypothesized recent range expansion of this species.

Planktic foraminifer-based sea-surface temperature reconstruction for sediment cores JM97-948/2A and MD95-2011 from the Vøring Plateau, eastern Norwegian Sea

The early to mid-Holocene thermal optimum is a well-known feature in a wide variety of paleoclimate archives from the Northern Hemisphere. Reconstructed summer temperature anomalies from across northern Europe show a clear maximum around 6000 years before present (6 ka). For the marine realm, Holocene trends in sea-surface temperature reconstructions for the North Atlantic and Norwegian Sea do not exhibit a consistent pattern of early to mid- Holocene warmth. Sea-surface temperature records based on alkenones and diatoms generally show the existence of a warm early to mid-Holocene optimum. In contrast, several foraminifer and radiolarian based temperature records from the North Atlantic and Norwegian Sea show a cool mid- Holocene anomaly and a trend towards warmer temperatures in the late Holocene. In this paper, we revisit the foraminifer record from the Vøring Plateau in the Norwegian Sea. We also compare this record with published foraminifer based temperature reconstructions from the North Atlantic and with modelled (CCSM3) upper ocean temperatures. Model results indicate that while the seasonal summer warming of the seasurface was stronger during the mid-Holocene, sub-surface depths experienced a cooling. This hydrographic setting can explain the discrepancies between the Holocene trends exhibited by phytoplankton and zooplankton based temperature proxy records.

210Pb dates, radiocarbon ages and sedimentation and accumulation rates of sediment cores JM99-1198 and MD99-2297

The magnitude of Late Holocene climatic variations are less significant than those that took place during ice ages and deglaciations. However, detailed knowledge about this period is vital in order to understand and model future climate scenarios both as a result of natural climate variation and the effects of global warming. Oceanic heat flux is important for the sensitive climate regime of northern Europe. Our aim is to connect hydrographical changes, reflected by the dinoflagellates cyst (dinocysts) assemblages in the sediments in the Malangen fjord, to local and regional climatic phases. Previous studies have shown that dinocyst assemblages are influenced by temperature, salinity, and the availability of nutrients (e.g. de Vernal et al. 2005, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.014; de Vernal et al. 2001, doi:10.1002/jqs.659; Grosfjeld et al. this volume; Rochon et al. 2008, doi:10.1016/j.marmicro.2008.04.001; Solignac et al. this volume). Dinoflagellates are mostly unicellular organisms that make up one of the main groups of phytoplankton. They are able to regulate their depth within the photic zone and to concentrate along oceanic fronts, which provide nutrient-enriched waters. The dinoflagellate cysts are the hypnozygotes of dinoflagellates naturally produced during the life cycle. Their wall is composed of a highly resistant organic material, which has a high potential to fossilize. Because dinocysts species are linked to particular abiotic and biotic parameters, the dinocyst assemblages provide information about past surface water conditions. Since each fjord has its own hydrographic setting, it is necessary to establish a firm link between the dinocyst composition of the sediment surface samples and the surface water conditions. Indeed the modern dinocyst distribution in subarctic fjords is little known. Thus, in addition to detailing dinocyst results from two shallow cores, several sediment surface samples located along a transect running from the head to the mouth of the fjord, and extending onto the shelf, are also presented.

Whole rock and Cr-rich spinel geochemistry of ODP Legs 152 and 163 and DSDP Hole 38-338 samples

Coring during Ocean Drilling Program and Deep Sea Drilling Project Legs 163, 152, 104, 81, and 38 recovered sequences of altered basalt from North Atlantic seaward-dipping reflector sequences (SDRS) erupted during the initial rifting of Greenland from northern Europe and likely associated with excessive mantle temperatures caused by an impacting mantle plume head. Cr-rich spinel is found abundantly as inclusions and groundmass crystals within the olivine-rich lavas of Hole 917A (Leg 152) cored into the Southeast Greenland SDRS, but only rarely as inclusions within plagioclase in the lavas of the Vøring Plateau SDRS, and it is absent from other cored SDRS lavas from the Rockall Plateau and Southeast Greenland. Eruptive melt compositions determined from inferred, thermodynamically-defined, spinel-melt exchange equilibria indicate that the most primitive melts represented by Hole 917A basalts have Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) at least as high as 0.70 and approach near-primary mantle melt compositions. In contrast, Cr-rich spinels from Hole 338 (Leg 38) lavas on the Vøring Plateau SDRS give evidence for melt with Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) only as high as 0.64. This study underlines that primitive melts similar to those from Hole 917A comprise only a small fraction of the eruptive North Atlantic SDRS melts, and that most SDRS basalts were, in fact, too evolved to have precipitated Cr-rich spinel, with true melt Mg/(Mg + Fe2+) likely below 0.60. The evolved nature of the SDRS basalts implies large amounts of fractionation at the base of the crust or deep within it, consistent with seismic results that indicate an abnormally thick Layer 3 underlying the SDRS.

La Península Ibérica en el transporte masivo de mercancías entre Europa y África : futuras autopistas del mar

La competitividad del transporte de mercancías depende del estado y funcionamiento de las redes existentes y de sus infraestructuras, no del modo de transporte. En concreto, la rentabilidad o la reducción de los costes de producción del transporte marítimo se vería incrementado con el uso de buques de mayor capacidad y con el desarrollo de plataformas portuarias de distribución o puertos secos, ya que el 90% del comercio entre la Unión Europea y terceros países se realiza a través de sus puertos a un promedio de 3,2 billones de toneladas de mercancías manipuladas cada año y el 40% del tráfico intraeuropeo utiliza el transporte marítimo de corta distancia. A pesar de que los puertos europeos acogen anualmente a más de 400 millones de pasajeros, los grandes desarrollos se han producido en los puertos del norte de Europa (Róterdam, Amberes, Ámsterdam). Los países del Sur de Europa deben buscar nuevas fórmulas para ser más competitivos, ya sea mediante creación de nuevas infraestructuras o mediante refuerzo de las existentes, ofreciendo los costes de los puertos del Norte. El fomento del transporte marítimo y fluvial como alternativa al transporte por carretera, especialmente el transporte marítimo de corta distancia, ha sido impulsado por la Comisión Europea (CE) desde 2003 a través de programas de apoyo comunitario de aplicación directa a las Autopistas del Mar, a modo de ejemplo, cabría citar los programas Marco Polo I y II, los cuales contaron con una dotación presupuestaria total de 855 millones de euros para el período 2003 – 2013; en ese período de tiempo se establecieron objetivos de reducción de congestión vial y mejora del comportamiento medio ambiental del sistema de transporte de mercancías dentro de la comunidad y la potenciación de la intermodalidad. El concepto de Autopista del Mar surge en el Libro Blanco de Transportes de la Comisión Europea “La política europea de transportes de cara al 2010: La hora de la verdad” del 12 de diciembre de 2001, en el marco de una política europea para fomento y desarrollo de sistemas de transportes sostenibles. Las Autopistas del Mar consisten en rutas marítimas de corta distancia entre dos puntos, de menor distancia que por vía terrestre, en las que a través del transporte intermodal mejoran significativamente los tiempos y costes de la cadena logística, contribuyen a la reducción de accidentes, ruidos y emisiones de CO2 a la atmósfera, permite que los conductores pierdan horas de trabajo al volante y evita el deterioro de las infraestructuras terrestres, con el consiguiente ahorro en mantenimiento. La viabilidad de una Autopista del Mar depende tanto de factores de ubicación geográficos, como de características propias del puerto, pasando por los diferentes requerimientos del mercado en cada momento (energéticos, medio ambientales y tecnológicos). Existe un elemento nuevo creado por la Comisión Europea: la red transeuropea de transportes (RTE-T). En el caso de España, con sus dos accesos por los Pirineos (La Junquera e Irún) como únicos pasos terrestres de comunicación con el continente y con importantes limitaciones ferroviarias debido a los tres anchos de vía distintos, le resta competitividad frente al conjunto europeo; por el contrario, España es el país europeo con más kilómetros de costa (con más de 8.000 km) y con un emplazamiento geográfico estratégico, lo que le convierte en una plataforma logística para todo el sur de Europa, por lo que las Autopistas del Mar tendrán un papel importante y casi obligado para el desarrollo de los grandes corredores marítimos que promueve Europa. De hecho, Gijón y Vigo lo han hecho muy bien con sus respectivas líneas definidas como Autopistas del Mar y que conectan con el puerto francés de Nantes-Saint Nazaire, ya que desde ahí los camiones pueden coger rutas hacia el Norte. Paralelamente, la Unión Europea ha iniciado los pasos para el impulso de la primera Autopista del Mar que conectará España con el mercado de Reino Unido, concretamente los Puertos de Bilbao y Tilbury. Además, España e Italia sellaron un acuerdo internacional para desarrollar Autopistas del Mar entre ambos países, comprometiéndose a impulsar una docena de rutas entre puertos del litoral mediterráneo español y el italiano. Actualmente, están en funcionando los trayectos como Barcelona-Génova, Valencia-Civitavecchia y Alicante- Nápoles, notablemente más cortos por mar que por carretera. Bruselas identificó cuatro grandes corredores marítimos que podrían concentrar una alta densidad de tráfico de buques, y en dos de ellos España ya tenía desde un principio un papel crucial. La Comisión diseñó el 14 de abril de 2004, a través del proyecto West-Mos, una red de tráfico marítimo que tiene como vías fundamentales la denominada Autopista del Báltico (que enlaza Europa central y occidental con los países bálticos), la Autopista de Europa suroriental (que une el Adriático con el Jónico y el Mediterráneo más oriental) y también la Autopista de Europa occidental y la Autopista de Europa suroccidental (que enlazan España con Reino Unido y la Francia atlántica y con la Francia mediterránea e Italia, respectivamente). Para poder establecer Autopistas del Mar entre la Península Ibérica y el Norte de Europa primará especialmente la retirada de camiones en la frontera pirenaica, donde el tráfico pesado tiene actualmente una intensidad media diaria de 8.000 unidades, actuando sobre los puntos de mayor congestión, como por ejemplo los Alpes, los Pirineos, el Canal de la Mancha, las carreteras fronterizas de Francia y Euskadi, y proponiendo el traslado de las mercancías en barcos o en trenes. Por su parte, para contar con los subsidios y apoyos europeos las rutas seleccionadas como Autopistas del Mar deben mantener una serie de criterios de calidad relacionados con la frecuencia, coste “plataforma logística a plataforma logística”, simplicidad en procedimientos administrativos y participación de varios países, entre otros. Los estudios consideran inicialmente viables los tramos marítimos superiores a 450 millas, con un volumen de unas 15.000 plataformas al año y que dispongan de eficientes comunicaciones desde el puerto a las redes transeuropeas de autopistas y ferrocarril. Otro objetivo de las Autopistas del Mar es desarrollar las capacidades portuarias de forma que se puedan conectar mejor las regiones periféricas a escala del continente europeo. En lo que a Puertos se refiere, las terminales en los muelles deben contar con una línea de atraque de 250 m., un calado superior a 8 m., una rampa “ro-ro” de doble calzada, grúas portainer, y garantizar operatividad para un mínimo de dos frecuencias de carga semanales. El 28 de marzo de 2011 se publicó el segundo Libro Blanco sobre el futuro del transporte en Europa “Hoja de ruta hacia un espacio único europeo de transporte: por una política de transportes competitiva y sostenible”, donde se definió el marco general de las acciones a emprender en los próximos diez años en el ámbito de las infraestructuras de transporte, la legislación del mercado interior, la reducción de la dependencia del carbono, la tecnología para la gestión del tráfico y los vehículos limpios, así como la estandarización de los distintos mercados. Entre los principales desafíos se encuentran la eliminación de los cuellos de botella y obstáculos diversos de nuestra red europea de transporte, minimizar la dependencia del petróleo, reducir las emisiones de GEI en un 60% para 2050 con respecto a los niveles de 1990 y la inversión en nuevas tecnologías e infraestructuras que reduzcan estas emisiones de transporte en la UE. La conexión entre la UE y el norte de África provoca elevados niveles de congestión en los puntos más críticos del trayecto: frontera hispano-francesa, corredor del Mediterráneo y el paso del estrecho. A esto se le añade el hecho de que el sector del transporte por carretera está sujeto a una creciente competencia de mercado motivada por la eliminación de las barreras europeas, mayores exigencias de los cargadores, mayores restricciones a los conductores y aumento del precio del gasóleo. Por otro lado, el mercado potencial de pasajeros tiene una clara diferenciación en tipos de flujos: los flujos en el período extraordinario de la Operación Paso del Estrecho (OPE), enfocado principalmente a marroquíes que vuelven a su país de vacaciones; y los flujos en el período ordinario, enfocado a la movilidad global de la población. Por tanto, lo que se pretende conseguir con este estudio es analizar la situación actual del tráfico de mercancías y pasajeros con origen o destino la península ibérica y sus causas, así como la investigación de las ventajas de la creación de una conexión marítima (Autopista del Mar) con el Norte de África, basándose en los condicionantes técnicos, administrativos, económicos, políticos, sociales y medio ambientales. The competitiveness of freight transport depends on the condition and operation of existing networks and infrastructure, not the mode of transport. In particular, profitability could be increased or production costs of maritime transport could be reduced by using vessels with greater capacity and developing port distribution platforms or dry ports, seeing as 90% of trade between the European Union and third countries happens through its ports. On average 3,2 billion tonnes of freight are handled annualy and 40% of intra-European traffic uses Short Sea Shipping. In spite of European ports annually hosting more than 400 million passengers, there have been major developments in the northern European ports (Rotterdam, Antwerp, Amsterdam). Southern European countries need to find new ways to be more competitive, either by building new infrastructure or by strengthening existing infrastructure, offering costs northern ports. The use of maritime and river transport as an alternative to road transport, especially Short Sea Shipping, has been driven by the European Commission (EC) from 2003 through community support programs for the Motorways of the Sea. These programs include, for example, the Marco Polo I and II programs, which had a total budget of 855 million euros for the period 2003-2013. During this time objectives were set for reducing road congestion, improving the environmental performance of the freight transport system within the community and enhancing intermodal transport. The “Motorway of the Sea” concept arises in the European Commission’s Transport White Paper "European transport policy for 2010: time to decide" on 12 December 2001, as part of a European policy for the development and promotion of sustainable transport systems. A Motorway of the Sea is defined as a short sea route between two points, covering less distance than by road, which provides a significant improvement in intermodal transport times and to the cost supply chain. It contributes to reducing accidents, noise and CO2 emissions, allows drivers to shorten their driving time and prevents the deterioration of land infrastructure thereby saving on maintenance costs. The viability of a Motorway of the Sea depends as much on geographical location factors as on characteristics of the port, taking into account the different market requirements at all times (energy, environmental and technological). There is a new element created by the European Commission: the trans-European transport network (TEN-T). In the case of Spain, with its two access points in the Pyrenees (La Junquera and Irun) as the only land crossings connected to the mainland and major railway limitations due to the three different gauges, it appears less competitive compared to Europe as a whole. However, Spain is the European country with the most kilometers of coastline (over 8,000 km) and a strategic geographical location, which makes it a logistics platform for the all of Southern Europe. This is why the Motorways of the Sea will have an important role, and an almost necessary one to develop major maritime corridors that Europe supports. In fact, Gijon and Vigo have done very well with their respective sea lanes defined as Motorways of the Sea and which connect with the French port of Nantes-Saint Nazaire, as from there trucks can use nort-heading routes. In parallel, the European Union has taken the first steps to boost the first Motorway of the Sea linking Spain to the UK market, specifically the ports of Bilbao and Tilbury. Furthermore, Spain and Italy sealed an international agreement to develop Motorways of the Sea between both countries, pledging to develop a dozen routes between ports on the Spanish and Italian Mediterranean coasts. Currently, there are sea lanes already in use such as Barcelona-Genova, Valencia-Civitavecchia and Alicante-Naples, these are significantly shorter routes by sea than by road. Brussels identified four major maritime corridors that could hold heavy concentrate shipping traffic, and Spain had a crucial role in two of these from the beginning. On 14 April 2004 the Commission planned through the West-Mos project, a network of maritime traffic which includes the essential sea passages the so-called Baltic Motorway (linking Central and Western Europe with the Baltic countries), the southeast Europe Motorway (linking the Adriatic to the Ionian and eastern Mediterranean Sea), the Western Europe Motorway and southwestern Europe Motorway (that links Spain with Britain and the Atlantic coast of France and with the French Mediterranean coast and Italy, respectively). In order to establish Motorways of the Sea between the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Europe especially, it is necessary to remove trucks from the Pyrenean border, where sees heavy traffic (on average 8000 trucks per day) and addressing the points of greatest congestion, such as the Alps, the Pyrenees, the English Channel, the border roads of France and Euskadi, and proposing the transfer of freight on ships or trains. For its part, in order to receive subsidies and support from the European Commission, the routes selected as Motorways of the Sea should maintain a series of quality criteria related to frequency, costs "from logistics platform to logistics platform," simplicity in administrative procedures and participation of several countries, among others. To begin with, studies consider viable a maritime stretch of at least 450 miles with a volume of about 15,000 platforms per year and that have efficient connections from port to trans-European motorways and rail networks. Another objective of the Motorways of the Sea is to develop port capacity so that they can better connect peripheral regions across the European continent. Referring ports, the terminals at the docks must have a berthing line of 250 m., a draft greater than 8 m, a dual carriageway "ro-ro" ramp, portainer cranes, and ensure operability for a minimum of two loads per week. On 28 March 2011 the second White Paper about the future of transport in Europe "Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource efficient transport system" was published. In this Paper the general framework of actions to be undertaken in the next ten years in the field of transport infrastructure was defined, including internal market legislation, reduction of carbon dependency, traffic management technology and clean vehicles, as well as the standardization of different markets. The main challenges are how to eliminate bottlenecks and various obstacles in our European transport network, minimize dependence on oil, reduce GHG emissions by 60% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels and encourage investment in new technologies and infrastructure that reduce EU transport emissions. The connection between the EU and North Africa causes high levels of congestion on the most critical points of the journey: the Spanish-French border, the Mediterranean corridor and Gibraltar Strait. In addition to this, the road transport sector is subject to increased market competition motivated by the elimination of European barriers, greater demands of shippers, greater restrictions on drivers and an increase in the price of diesel. On the other hand, the potential passenger market has a clear differentiation in type of flows: flows in the special period of the Crossing the Straits Operation (CSO), mainly focused on Moroccans who return home on vacation; and flows in the regular session, focused on the global mobile population. Therefore, what I want to achieve with this study is present an analysis of the current situation of freight and passengers to or from the Iberian Peninsula and their causes, as well as present research on the advantages of creating a maritime connection (Motorways of the Sea) with North Africa, based on the technical, administrative, economic, political, social and environmental conditions.

La migración residencial de noreuropeos en España

El proceso de unificación europea ha facilitado la aparición de nuevos flujos migratorios entre los distintos Estados. Uno muy significativo lo forman los noreuropeos (británicos y alemanes, principalmente) que se trasladan a los países mediterráneos. En este artículo se analizan los problemas que enfrentan los inmigrantes residenciales noreuropeos en el sur de España a la hora de establecer vínculos con la sociedad española. Con este fin, se lleva a cabo un estudio en el municipio de San Miguel de Salinas, ubicado en el sudeste del país. La perspectiva metodológica articula la investigación cuantitativa con la cualitativa. Los hallazgos obtenidos muestran cómo la barrera idiomática esconde en realidad un entramado de relaciones entre aspectos socioespaciales, políticos y económicos. Se configura así un sistema que dificulta el establecimiento de interacciones entre los residentes españoles y los noreuropeos, generando además procesos de fragmentación social.

Trends and Disparities in Mortality Among Spanish-Born and Foreign-Born Populations Residing in Spain, 1999–2008

Spain’s immigrant population has increased 380 % in the last decade, accounting for 13.1 % of the total population. This fact has led her to become during 2009 the eighth recipient country of international immigrants in the world. The aim of this article is to describe the evolution of mortality and the main causes of death among the Spanish-born and foreign-born populations residing in Spain between 1999 and 2008. Age-standardised mortality rates (ASRs), average age and comparative mortality ratios among foreign-born and Spanish-born populations residing in Spain were computed for every year and sub-period by sex, cause of death and place of birth as well as by the ASR percentage change. During 1999–2008 the ASR showed a progressive decrease in the risk of death in the Spanish-born population (−17.8 % for men and −16.6 % for women) as well as in the foreign-born one (−45.9 % for men and −35.7 % for women). ASR also showed a progressive decrease for practically all the causes of death, in both populations. It has been observed that the risk of death due to neoplasms and respiratory diseases among immigrants is lower than that of their Spanish-born counterparts, but risk due to external causes is higher. Places of birth with the greater decreases are Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Southern Europe, and Latin America and the Caribbean. The research shows the differences in the reduction of death risk between Spanish-born and immigrant inhabitants between 1999 and 2008. These results could contribute to the ability of central and local governments to create effective health policy. Further research is necessary to examine changes in mortality trends among immigrant populations as a consequence of the economic crisis and the reforms in the Spanish health system. Spanish data sources should incorporate into their records information that enables them to find out the immigrant duration of permanence and the possible impact of this on mortality indicators.

Strong governments, weak banks. CEPS Policy Brief No. 305, 25 November 2013

Banks in the northern eurozone have capital ratios that are, on average, less than half of the capital ratios of banks in the eurozone’s periphery. The authors explain this by the fact that northern eurozone banks profit from the financial solidity of their governments and follow business strategies aimed at issuing too much subsidised debt. In doing so, they weaken their balance sheets and become more fragile – less able to withstand future shocks. Paradoxically, financially strong governments breed fragile banks. The opposite occurs in countries with financially weak governments. In these countries banks are forced to strengthen themselves because they are unable to rely on their governments. As a result they have significantly more capital and reserves than banks in the northern eurozone. Recommendations More than in the south, the governments of northern Europe should stand up and force the banks to issue more equity. This should go much further than what is foreseen in the Basel III accord. If the experience of the southern eurozone countries is any guide, banks in the north of the eurozone should at least double the capital and the reserves as a percentage of their balance sheets. Failure to do so risks destroying the financial solidity of the northern European governments when, in the future, negative shocks force these governments to come to the rescue of their undercapitalised banks. The new responsibilities entrusted to the European Central Bank as the single supervisor in the eurozone create a unique opportunity for that institution to change the regulatory and supervisory culture in the eurozone – one that has allowed the large banks to continue living dangerously, with insufficient capital.