Memoires de l'Academie (Royale) des Sciences, Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres de Toulouse.

Tome 4 (Series 4)

Citizenship in the discourse of Egyptian political parties. EUSpring Working Paper No. 6, June 2015 [also Citizenship Report no. 3]

The concept of citizenship is one of the most complicated in political and social sciences. Its long process of historical development makes dealing with it particularly complicated. Citizenship is by nature a multi-dimensional concept: there is a legal citizenship, referring first to the equal legal status of individuals, for instance the equality between men and women. Legal citizenship also refers to a political dimension, the right to start and/or join political parties, or political participation more broadly. Thirdly, it has a religious dimension relating to the right of all religious groups to equally and freely practice their religious customs and rituals. Finally, legal citizenship possesses a socio-economic dimension related to the non-marginalisation of different social categories, for instance women. All of these dimensions, far from being purely objects of legal texts and codifications, are emerging as an arena of political struggle within the Egyptian society. Citizenship as a concept has its roots in European history and, more specifically, the emergence of the nation state in Europe and the ensuing economic and social developments in these societies. These social developments and the rise of the nation state have worked in parallel, fostering the notion of an individual citizen bestowed with rights and obligations. This gradual interaction was very different from what happened in the context of the Arab world. The emerging of the nation state in Egypt was an outcome of modernisation efforts from the top-down; it coercively redesigned the social structure, by eliminating or weakening some social classes in favour of others. These efforts have had an impact on the state-society relation at least in two respects. First, on the overlapping relation between some social classes and the state, and second, on the ability of some social groups to self-organise, define and raise their demands. This study identifies how different political parties in Egypt envision the multi-dimensional concept of citizenship. We focus on the following elements: Nature of the state (identity, nature of the regime) Liberties and rights (election laws, political party laws, etc.) Right to gather and organise (syndicates, associations, etc.) Freedom of expression and speech (right to protest, sit in, strike, etc.) Public and individual liberties (freedom of belief, personal issues, etc.) Rights of marginalised groups (women, minorities, etc.)

(Table 1) Heavy mineral content in sediments of the southern Mediterranean Ridge, Nile Cone and Egyptian Shelf

Petrographic analysis of Quaternary terrigenous sand layers in eastern Mediterranean cores reveals distinct mineralogical differences between the Egyptian Shelf-Nile Cone region and the southern part of the Mediterranean Ridge. A compositionally and texturally immature suite in Ridge cores, mixed with a Nile-derived assemblage, identifies a fresh non-recycled mineral component derived from proximal igneous and metamorphic surface or near-surface exposures, probably in the south-central Ridge area rather than from distal African sources. The presence of such basement terrains would be consistent with a compressive thrust-belt origin for this part of the Mediterranean Ridge.

The church bells of Bedfordshire : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with a brief history of church bells in that county, chiefly from original and contemporaneous records /

Mode of access: Internet.

The church bells of Leicestershire : their inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with chapters on bells and the Leicester bell founders /

Mode of access: Internet.

Epigrammata, Greek inscriptions in verse from the beginnings to the Persian Wars /

Bibliographical footnotes.

Inscriptions from Alishar and vicinity,

Mode of access: Internet.

Inscriptions from Adab,

The texts are from the "Oriental institute collections." cf. p. 7.

Greek, Roman and Egyptian antiquities ... /

"Pubic auction sale."

Manual of mythology: Greek and Roman, Norse, and old German, Hindoo and Egyptian mythology.

Mode of access: Internet.

The church bells of the county and city of Lincoln : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and peculiar uses, with a brief history of church bells in Loncolnshire, chiefly from original and contemporaneous records /

"210 copies printed."

Cook's handbook for Egypt and the Egyptian Sûdân : with chapters on Egyptian archæology /

Mode of access: Internet.

The church bells of Essex : their founders, inscriptions, traditions, and uses /

Mode of access: Internet.