Como viabilizar reformas politicamente improváveis? mudanças da previdência nos governos FHC e Lula.

Reformas da previdência são empreendimentos de difícil realização em regimes democráticos. Afinal, costumam gerar benefícios difusos e percebidos no longo prazo em troca de custos mais imediatos e concentrados em grupos populacionais mais atentos à iniciativa, reconhecida assim como impopular. Contudo, a dinâmica de fatores econômicos e demográficos pode aumentar a necessidade de uma reforma a ponto de, em certos momentos, superar o constrangimento político de sua impopularidade, como se observou no Brasil em diferentes governos. Esta tese apresenta novas evidências da dificuldade encontrada por diferentes chefes do Executivo brasileiro ao submeter projetos reformadores da previdência ao Congresso Nacional, pois os parlamentares, de modo geral, revelaram-se sistematicamente menos propensos a apoiar o governo nessas iniciativas do que em outras com características semelhantes. Em particular, demonstra-se que a resistência do Legislativo foi notavelmente maior na reforma do governo FHC do que na realizada pelo governo Lula e conclui-se que o comportamento mais dócil da oposição ao segundo foi o principal determinante para reduzir a dificuldade na tramitação de seu projeto. Sobre as razões da dificuldade de reformar a previdência nos regimes democráticos em geral, a tese obtém sua conclusão de um exame sobre o contexto mais amplo da reforma do Estado no Brasil à luz de achados basilares da ciência política e, sobretudo, da área de estudos legislativos, a cuja literatura busca adicionar sua contribuição.

Utilização de marcadores salivares para avaliação e controle do desempenho físico e cognitivo em atletas de futebol

A elaboração de um programa de treinamento físico depende do controle de diferentes parâmetros bioquímicos, que se relacionam com fatores como a intensidade do exercício, imunidade e com o estado redox. Além disso, estudos recentes também começaram a apontar a relevância da função executiva como componente determinante para o alcance de um alto nível de desempenho esportivo. Por outro lado, poucos estudos foram realizados em atletas até o momento utilizando estes marcadores na saliva juntamente com os testes de função cognitiva. O objetivo desse trabalho foi estudar a capacidade discriminatória das análises bioquímicas realizadas em saliva para avaliação do desempenho físico e sua relação com a função cognitiva em atletas de futebol. Trinta e dois atletas foram submetidos ao Bangsbo Sprint Test (BST) para avaliação da capacidade física e 48 horas depois ao Teste de Stroop (TSt) e Torre de Hanoi (ToH) para avaliação da função executiva. Os níveis de lactato na saliva aumentaram quando comparados aos valores Pré-BST (6,9 vezes; p<0,05). A proteína total salivar seguiu o mesmo padrão com aumento observado após o BST (+34%; p<0,05). As concentrações de imunoglobulina-A salivar (IgA-s) não mostraram diferença significativa após o BST. Os níveis de GSH e TBARs na saliva não mostraram diferença significativa, enquanto que a concentração de ácido úrico diminuiu após o BST (-26%; p<0,05). Interessantemente, a superóxido dismutase (SOD) salivar aumentou (3,6 vezes; p<0,05), enquanto que os níveis de catalase (CAT) na saliva não alteraram significativamente. Não houve correlação de nenhum dos parâmetros analisados com o desempenho no TSt, entretanto atletas localizados no percentil superior (P90) de cortisol na saliva (11,2 ng/ mL à 32,7 ng/ mL) apresentaram tempos mais longos para a resolução do ToH. A eletroforese 2D mostrou que 215 spots só apareceram no momento Pré-BST, 63 spots aumentaram e 108 diminuíram a sua expressão após o BST. Concluindo, a saliva é sensível às modificações induzidas pelo BST. A manutenção dos níveis salivares de TBARs após o BST parece ocorrer em função da diminuição dos níveis de ácido úrico, componente este que possui uma expressiva ação antioxidante. Neste sentido, o aumento de SOD pós-exercício parece agir como uma segunda linha de defesa antioxidante contra a produção de ROS induzidas pelo BST. Além disso, os resultados dos testes de função executiva indicam que níveis elevados de cortisol salivar possuem um efeito deletério no tempo de resolução da ToH, que se refere à memória de trabalho, o planejamento e solução de problemas. No entanto o TSt, que envolve a atenção seletiva e a velocidade de processamento de informações parecem não ser afetados pelos níveis de cortisol em repouso. E finalmente, a eletroforese 2D mostrou que o BST induziu a expressão diferencial de proteínas, visto que não surgiram proteínas novas após o teste, e dezenas de proteínas foram up-reguladas e down-reguladas após o BST. Estes dados sugerem que após uma análise proteômica, estas proteínas possam ser candidatas a marcadores de desempenho físico e/ou cognitivo em futuros estudos.

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) research highlights in the Chesapeake Bay

The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It is a unique and valuable national treasure because of its ecological, recreational, economic and cultural benefits. The problems facing the Bay are well known and extensively documented, and are largely related to human uses of the watershed and resources within the Bay. Over the past several decades as the origins of the Chesapeake’s problems became clear, citizens groups and Federal, State, and local governments have entered into agreements and worked together to restore the Bay’s productivity and ecological health. In May 2010, President Barack Obama signed Executive Order number 13508 that tasked a team of Federal agencies to develop a way forward in the protection and restoration of the Chesapeake watershed. Success of both State and Federal efforts will depend on having relevant, sound information regarding the ecology and function of the system as the basis of management and decision making. In response to the executive order, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS) has compiled an overview of its research in Chesapeake Bay watershed. NCCOS has a long history of Chesapeake Bay research, investigating the causes and consequences of changes throughout the watershed’s ecosystems. This document presents a cross section of research results that have advanced the understanding of the structure and function of the Chesapeake and enabled the accurate and timely prediction of events with the potential to impact both human communities and ecosystems. There are three main focus areas: changes in land use patterns in the watershed and the related impacts on contaminant and pathogen distribution and concentrations; nutrient inputs and algal bloom events; and habitat use and life history patterns of species in the watershed. Land use changes in the Chesapeake Bay watershed have dramatically changed how the system functions. A comparison of several subsystems within the Bay drainages has shown that water quality is directly related to land use and how the land use affects ecosystem health of the rivers and streams that enter the Chesapeake Bay. Across the Chesapeake as a whole, the rivers that drain developed areas, such as the Potomac and James rivers, tend to have much more highly contaminated sediments than does the mainstem of the Bay itself. In addition to what might be considered traditional contaminants, such as hydrocarbons, new contaminants are appearing in measurable amounts. At fourteen sites studied in the Bay, thirteen different pharmaceuticals were detected. The impact of pharmaceuticals on organisms and the people who eat them is still unknown. The effects of water borne infections on people and marine life are known, however, and the exposure to certain bacteria is a significant health risk. A model is now available that predicts the likelihood of occurrence of a strain of bacteria known as Vibrio vulnificus throughout Bay waters.

The state of coral reef ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008

In the past decade, increased awareness regarding the declining condition of U.S. coral reefs has prompted various actions by governmental and non-governmental organizations. Presidential Executive Order 13089 created the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) in 1998 to coordinate federal and state/territorial activities (Clinton, 1998), and the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 provided Congressional funding for activities to conserve these important ecosystems, including mapping, monitoring and assessment projects carried out through the support of NOAA’s CRCP. Numerous collaborations forged among federal agencies and state, local, non-governmental, academic and private partners now support a variety of monitoring activities. This report shares the results of many of these monitoring activities, relying heavily on quantitative, spatially-explicit data that has been collected in the recent past and comparisons with historical data where possible. The success of this effort can be attributed to the dedication of over 270 report contributors who comprised the expert writing teams in the jurisdictions and contributed to the National Level Activities and National Summary chapters. The scope and content of this report are the result of their dedication to this considerable collaborative effort. Ultimately, the goal of this report is to answer the difficult but vital question: what is the condition of U.S. coral reef ecosystems? The report attempts to base a response on the best available science emerging from coral reef ecosystem monitoring programs in 15 jurisdictions across the country. However, few monitoring programs have been in place for longer than a decade, and many have been initiated only within the past two to five years. A few jurisdictions are just beginning to implement monitoring programs and face challenges stemming from a lack of basic habitat maps and other ecosystem data in addition to adequate training, capacity building, and technical support. There is also a general paucity of historical data describing the condition of ecosystem resources before major human impacts occurred, which limits any attempt to present the current conditions within an historical context and contributes to the phenomenon of shifting baselines (Jackson, 1997; Jackson et al., 2001; Pandolfi et al., 2005).

Transboundary diagnostic analysis: executive summary

The Transboundary Diagnosis Analysis(TDA) quantifies and ranks water-related environmental transboundary issues and their causes according to the severity of environmental and/or socio-economic impacts. The three main issues in BOBLME are; overexploitation of marine living resources; degradation of mangroves, coral reefs and seagrasses; pollution and water quality.

Neural mechanisms of belief inference during cooperative games.

Humans have the arguably unique ability to understand the mental representations of others. For success in both competitive and cooperative interactions, however, this ability must be extended to include representations of others' belief about our intentions, their model about our belief about their intentions, and so on. We developed a "stag hunt" game in which human subjects interacted with a computerized agent using different degrees of sophistication (recursive inferences) and applied an ecologically valid computational model of dynamic belief inference. We show that rostral medial prefrontal (paracingulate) cortex, a brain region consistently identified in psychological tasks requiring mentalizing, has a specific role in encoding the uncertainty of inference about the other's strategy. In contrast, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex encodes the depth of recursion of the strategy being used, an index of executive sophistication. These findings reveal putative computational representations within prefrontal cortex regions, supporting the maintenance of cooperation in complex social decision making.

2型糖尿病患者认知功能特点及相关影响因素研究

Objective: Type 2 diabetes patients’ performances of action memory , semantic memory and working memory and the related factors were explored. Methods: 60 Type 2 diabetes patients were compared with 60 age and gender and level of education matched non-diabetes controls. Mood were tested by SAS and SDS, MMSE was used to test the basic cognitive function, Trail Making Test A and B, Verbal fluency test, Go-No/Go test, and Stroop color-word test were used to investigate the executive function of Type 2 diabetes patients and normal controls (NC). Patients’ GLU, TG, TCH, HbA1c, insulin and Cp were tested and correlated with their action memory and working memory. Results: There was no difference between NC group and Type 2 diabetes patients in MMSE scores. There is depression and anxiety mood in Type 2 diabetes patients. Type 2 diabetes patients get lower score in action memory test. Comparing to NC group, Type 2 diabetes patients performed significantly worse in Trail Making Test A and B and verbal fluency test. In Stroop Test, NC group showed significant Stroop Effect and Repeated Distraction Promotion Effect and Negative Priming Effect. However, In Type 2 diabetes group, only the Stroop Effect appeared, but no Repeated Distraction Promotion Effect and Negative Priming Effect. There is no difference between Type 2 diabetes and NC in Stroop Effect. In Go-No/Go test, both of two groups showed significant Stroop Effect, however, there was no difference between them. And also there is no difference on error rate of all levels between them. The course of disease, GL, HbA1c, TG, TCH, INS and Cp affected action memory and working memory. Conclusion: Type 2 diabetes patients’ action memory, semantic memory and working memory were partially impaired. Controlling the levels of GLU, TG and TCH can delay these kinds of impairment.

阿片药物依赖的神经机制---内侧前额叶与药物的心理依赖

Mental dependence, characterized by craving and impulsive seeking behavior, is the matter of intensive study in the field of drug addiction. The mesolimbic dopamine system has been suggested to play an important role in rewarding of drugs and relapse. Although chronic drug use can induce neuroadaptations of the mesolimbic system and changes of drug reinforcement, these mechanisms cannot fully account for the craving and the compulsive drug-using behavior of addicts. Acknowledging the reinforcement effects of drugs, most previous studies have studied the impact of environmental cues and conditioned learning on addiction behavior, often using established classical or operant conditioning model. These studies, however, paid little attention to the role of cognitive control and emotion in addiction. These mental factors that are believed to have an important influence on conditioned learning. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has close anatomic and functional connections with the mesolimbic dopamine system. A number of the cognitive neurological studies demonstrate that mPFC is involved in motivation, emotional regulation, monitoring of responses and other executive functions. Thus we speculated that the function of abnormality in mPFC following chronic drug use would cause related to the abnormal behavior in addicts including impulse and emotional changes. In the present study of a series of experiments, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the hemodynamic response of the mPFC and related circuits to various cognitive and emotional stimuli in heroin addicts and to explore the underlying dopamine neuromechnism by microinjection of tool drugs into the mPFC in laboratory animals. In the first experiment, we found that heroin patients, relative to the normal controls, took a much shorter time and committed more errors in completing the more demanding of cognitive regulation in the reverse condition of the task, while the neural activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was attenuated. In the second experiment, the scores of the heroin patients in self-rating depression scale (SDS) and Self-rating anxiety scale (SAS) were significantly higher than the normal controls and they rated the negative pictures more aversive than the normal controls. Being congruent with the behavioral results, hemodynamic response to negative pictures showed significant difference between the two groups in bilateral ventral mPFC (VMPFC), amygdala, and right thalamus. The VMPFC of patients showed increased activation than normal controls, whereas activation in the amygdala of patients was weaker than that in normal subjects. Our third experiment showed that microinjection of D1 receptor agonist SKF38393 into the mPFC of rats decreased hyperactivity, which was induced by morphine injection, in contrast, D1 receptor antagonist SCH23390 increased the hyperactivity, These findings suggest: (1) The behavior and neural activity in ACC of addicts changed in chronic drug users. Their impulsive behavior might result from the abnormal neural activity in the mPFC especially the ACC. (2) Heroine patients were more depress and anxiety than normal controls. The dysfunction of the mPFC---amygdala circuit of heroine addicts might be related to the abnormal emotion response. (3) Dopamine in the mPFC has an inhibitory effect on morphine induced behavior. The hyperactivity induced by chronic morphine was reduced by dopamine increase with D1 receptor agonist, confirm the first experiment that the neuroadaption of mPFC system induced by chronic morphine administration appears to be the substrate the impulse behavior of drug users.

情绪干扰下焦虑水平对执行抑制的影响机制——事件相关电位研究

Behavioral inhibition model suggests the generation of anxiety is related with over-inhibition. For knowing about anxiety better, we used event-related potential (ERP) technique to explore the underlying mechanism of executive inhibition under the emotional distracter in high and low trait-anxious groups. Firstly, we set up the Chinese affective picture system (CAPS) as the stimuli of subsequent experiments. Secondly, we screened the high and low trait-anxious participants using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In the first ERP study, a modified oddball paradigm was used with the positive, neutral and negative pictures as novel stimuli and the potentials evoked by three types pictures were analyzed. In the second ERP study, the same paradigm with higher task load was employed to examine the interaction of anxious level and emotion. Main results as follows: 1. CAPS consisted of 852 pictures was assessed via three dimensionalities, valence, arousal and dominance. The standard deviation of scores on valence and dominance was more than the standard deviation of scores on dimension of arousal. Scatter plot showed that the score distributing on the dimension of valence and arousal was wide in CAPS. 2. In both high and low trait-anxiety groups, the amplitudes of N2 and P3 of negative pictures were greater and smaller respectively as compared with neutral and positive pictures, which suggested all participants no matter what anxious level required more inhibition processing to negative information than others. 3. With increasing of task load, the P3 amplitudes of negative pictures in high anxious group were reduced relative to neutral pictures. In addition, in high anxious group, the P3 amplitudes of positive pictures had the same changes as those of negative ones. Whereas, the reduced P3 of positive pictures were not observed in low anxious group. The results showed the high anxious participants employed the same inhibitory strategy to the positive distracter as the negative distracter, which possibly the over-inhibition processing was involved in this group. 4. Dipole source analysis found cingulate may be involved in executive inhibition processing. In sum, as for the inhibition, high and low anxious group both is sensitive to negative information. However, in the high load situation, due to the shortness of cognitive resources, the high anxious individual represents the general sensitivity to all emotional information. These results gave the electrophysiological evidence for over-inhibition in high trait-anxiety group.