Ionizing radiation enhances immunogenicity of cells expressing a tumor-specific T-cell epitope.

BACKGROUND: p53 point mutations represent potential tumor-specific cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes. Whether ionizing radiation (IR) alters the immunological properties of cells expressing mutant p53 in respect of the CTL epitope generated by a defined point mutation has not been evaluated. METHODS: Mutant p53-expressing syngeneic, nontumor forming BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts, tumor forming ras-transfected BALB/c 3T3 sarcomas, and DBA/2-derived P815 mastocytoma cells, which differ at the level of minor histocompatibility antigens, were used as cellular vaccines. Cells were either injected with or without prior IR into naive BALB/c mice. Cellular cytotoxicity was assessed after secondary restimulation of effector spleen cells in vitro. RESULTS: Injection of P815 mastocytoma cells expressing the mutant p53 induced mutation-specific CTL in BALB/c mice irrespective of prior irradiation. However, syngeneic fibroblasts or fibrosarcomas endogenously expressing mutant p53 were able to induce significant mutation-specific CTL only when irradiated prior to injection into BALB/c mice. IR of fibroblasts did not detectably alter the expression of cell surface molecules involved in immune response induction, nor did it alter the short-term in vitro viability of the fibroblasts. Interestingly, radioactively-labeled fibroblasts injected into mice after irradiation showed altered organ distribution, suggesting that the in vivo fate of these cells may play a crucial role in their immunogenicity. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that IR can alter the immunogenicity of syngeneic normal as well as tumor forming fibroblasts in vivo, and support the view that ionizing radiation enhances immunogenicity of cellular tumor vaccines.

Dominant Role of CD80-CD86 Over CD40 and ICOSL in the Massive Polyclonal B Cell Activation Mediated by LAT(Y136F) CD4(+) T Cells.

Coordinated interactions between T and B cells are crucial for inducing physiological B cell responses. Mutant mice in which tyrosine 136 of linker for activation of T cell (LAT) is replaced by a phenylalanine (Lat(Y136F)) exhibit a strong CD4(+) T cell proliferation in the absence of intended immunization. The resulting effector T cells produce high amounts of T(H)2 cytokines and are extremely efficient at inducing polyclonal B cell activation. As a consequence, these Lat(Y136F) mutant mice showed massive germinal center formations and hypergammaglobulinemia. Here, we analyzed the involvement of different costimulators and their ligands in such T-B interactions both in vitro and in vivo, using blocking antibodies, knockout mice, and adoptive transfer experiments. Surprisingly, we showed in vitro that although B cell activation required contact with T cells, CD40, and inducible T cell costimulator molecule-ligand (ICOSL) signaling were not necessary for this process. These observations were further confirmed in vivo, where none of these molecules were required for the unfolding of the LAT CD4(+) T cell expansion and the subsequent polyclonal B cell activation, although, the absence of CD40 led to a reduction of the follicular B cell response. These results indicate that the crucial functions played by CD40 and ICOSL in germinal center formation and isotype switching in physiological humoral responses are partly overcome in Lat(Y136F) mice. By comparison, the absence of CD80-CD86 was found to almost completely block the in vitro B cell activation mediated by Lat(Y136F) CD4(+) T cells. The role of CD80-CD86 in T-B cooperation in vivo remained elusive due to the upstream implication of these costimulatory molecules in the expansion of Lat(Y136F) CD4(+) T cells. Together, our data suggest that CD80 and CD86 costimulators play a key role in the polyclonal B cell activation mediated by Lat(Y136F) CD4(+) T cells even though additional costimulatory molecules or cytokines are likely to be required in this process.

Cutting edge: alum adjuvant stimulates inflammatory dendritic cells through activation of the NALP3 inflammasome.

Adjuvants are vaccine additives that stimulate the immune system without having any specific antigenic effect of itself. In this study we show that alum adjuvant induces the release of IL-1beta from macrophages and dendritic cells and that this is abrogated in cells lacking various NALP3 inflammasome components. The NALP3 inflammasome is also required in vivo for the innate immune response to OVA in alum. The early production of IL-1beta and the influx of inflammatory cells into the peritoneal cavity is strongly reduced in NALP3-deficient mice. The activation of adaptive cellular immunity to OVA-alum is initiated by monocytic dendritic cell precursors that induce the expansion of Ag-specific T cells in a NALP3-dependent way. We propose that, in addition to TLR stimulators, agonists of the NALP3 inflammasome should also be considered as vaccine adjuvants.

Between Immunology And Tolerance: Controlling Immune Responses Employing Tolerogenic Dendritic Cells

Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most efficient antigen presenting cells, they provide co-stimulation, are able to secrete various proinflammatory cytokines and therefore play a pivotal role in shaping adaptive immune responses. Moreover, they are important for the promotion and maintenance of central and peripheral tolerance through several mechanisms like the induction of anergy or apoptosis in effector T cells or by promoting regulatory T cells. The murine CD8α+ (MuTu) dendritic cell line was previously derived and described in our laboratory. The MuTu cell line has been shown to maintain phenotypical and functional characteristics of endogenous CD8α+ DCs. They are able to cross-present exogenous antigens to CD8+ T cells and produce interleukin (IL-) 12 upon engagement of Toll like receptors. The cell line constitutes an infinite source of homogenous, phenotypically well-defined dendritic cells. This allows us to investigate the role and potential of specific molecules in the induction as well as regulation of immune responses by DCs in a rational and standardized way. In a first project the MuTu dendritic cell line was transduced in order to stably express the immunosuppressive molecules IL-10, IL-35 or the active form of TGF-β (termed IL-10+DC, IL-35+DC or actTGFβ+DC). We investigated the capability of these potentially suppressive or tolerogenic dendritic cell lines to induce immune tolerance and explore the mechanisms behind tolerance induction. The expression of TGF-β by the DC line did not affect the phenotype of the DCs itself. In contrast, IL-10+ and IL-35+DCs were found to exhibit lower expression of co-stimulatory molecules and MHC class I and II, as well as reduced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines upon activation. In vitro co-culture with IL-35+, IL10+ or active TGFβ+ DCs interfered with function and proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Furthermore, IL-35 and active TGF-β expressing DC lines induced regulatory phenotype on CD4+ T cells in vitro without or with expression of Foxp3, respectively. In different murine cancer models, vaccination with IL-35 or active TGF-β expressing DCs resulted in faster tumor growth. Interestingly, accelerated tumor growth could be observed when IL-35-expressing DCs were injected into T cell-deficient RAG-/- mice. IL-10expressing DCs however, were found to rather delay tumor growth. Besides the mentioned autocrine effects of IL-35 expression on the DC line itself, we surprisingly observed that the expression of IL-35 or the addition of IL-35 containing medium enhances neutrophil survival and induces proliferation of endothelial cells. Our findings indicate that the cytokine IL-35 might not only be a potent regulator of adaptive immune responses, but it also implies IL-35 to mediate diverse effects on an array of cellular targets. This abilities make IL-35 a promising target molecule not only for the treatment of auto-inflammatory disease but also to improve anti-cancer immunotherapies. Indeed, by applying active TGFβ+ in murine autoimmune encephalitis we were able to completely inhibit the development of the disease, whereas IL-35+DCs reduced disease incidence and severity. Furthermore, the preventive transfer of IL-35+DCs delayed rejection of transplanted skin to the same extend as the combination of IL-10/actTGF-β expressing DCs. Thus, the expression of a single tolerogenic molecule can be sufficient to interfere with the adequate activation and function of dendritic cells and of co-cultured T lymphocytes. The respective mechanisms of tolerance induction seem to be different for each of the investigated molecule. The application of a combination of multiple tolerogenic molecules might therefore evoke synergistic effects in order to overcome (auto-) immunity. In a second project we tried to improve the immunogenicity of dendritic cell-based cancer vaccines using two different approaches. First, the C57BL/6 derived MuTu dendritic cell line was genetically modified in order to express the MHC class I molecule H-2Kd. We hypothesized that the expression of BALB/c specific MHC class I haplotype (H-2Kd) should allow the priming of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells by the otherwise allogeneic dendritic cells. At the same time, the transfer of these H-2Kd+ DCs into BALB/c mice was thought to evoke a strong inflammatory environment that might act as an "adjuvant", helping to overcome tumor induced immune suppression. Using this so called "semi-allogeneic" vaccination approach, we could demonstrate that the delivery of tumor lysate pulsed H-2Kd+ DCs significantly delayed tumor growth when compared to autologous or allogeneic vaccination. However, we were not able to coherently elucidate the cellular mechanisms underlying the observed effect. Second, we generated MuTu DC lines which stably express the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-2, IL-12 or IL-15. We investigated whether the combination of DC vaccination and local delivery of pro-inflammatory cytokines might enhance tumor specific T cell responses. Indeed, we observed an enhanced T cell proliferation and activation when they were cocultured in vitro with IL-12 or IL-2-expressing DCs. But unfortunately we could not observe a beneficial or even synergistic impact on tumor development when cytokine delivery was combined with semi-allogeneic DC vaccination.

Targeting the tumor vasculature to enhance T cell activity.

T cells play a critical role in tumor immune surveillance as evidenced by extensive mouse-tumor model studies as well as encouraging patient responses to adoptive T cell therapies and dendritic cell vaccines. It is well established that the interplay of tumor cells with their local cellular environment can trigger events that are immunoinhibitory to T cells. More recently it is emerging that the tumor vasculature itself constitutes an important barrier to T cells. Endothelial cells lining the vessels can suppress T cell activity, target them for destruction, and block them from gaining entry into the tumor in the first place through the deregulation of adhesion molecules. Here we review approaches to break this tumor endothelial barrier and enhance T cell activity.

NLRP12 is a neutrophil-specific, negative regulator of in vitro cell migration but does not modulate LPS- or infection-induced NF-κB or ERK signalling.

NOD-like receptors (NLR) are a family of cytosolic pattern recognition receptors that include many key drivers of innate immune responses. NLRP12 is an emerging member of the NLR family that is closely related to the well-known inflammasome scaffold, NLRP3. Since its discovery, various functions have been proposed for NLRP12, including the positive regulation of dendritic cell (DC) and neutrophil migration and the inhibition of NF-κB and ERK signalling in DC and macrophages. We show here that NLRP12 is poorly expressed in murine macrophages and DC, but is strongly expressed in neutrophils. Using myeloid cells from WT and Nlrp12(-/)(-) mice, we show that, contrary to previous reports, NLRP12 does not suppress LPS- or infection-induced NF-κB or ERK activation in myeloid cells, and is not required for DC migration in vitro. Surprisingly, we found that Nlrp12 deficiency caused increased rather than decreased neutrophil migration towards the chemokine CXCL1 and the neutrophil parasite Leishmania major, revealing NLRP12 as a negative regulator of directed neutrophil migration under these conditions.

Delivery of antigen to nasal-associated lymphoid tissue microfold cells through secretory IgA targeting local dendritic cells confers protective immunity.

BACKGROUND: Transmission of mucosal pathogens relies on their ability to bind to the surfaces of epithelial cells, to cross this thin barrier, and to gain access to target cells and tissues, leading to systemic infection. This implies that pathogen-specific immunity at mucosal sites is critical for the control of infectious agents using these routes to enter the body. Although mucosal delivery would ensure the best onset of protective immunity, most of the candidate vaccines are administered through the parenteral route. OBJECTIVE: The present study evaluates the feasibility of delivering the chemically bound p24gag (referred to as p24 in the text) HIV antigen through secretory IgA (SIgA) in nasal mucosae in mice. RESULTS: We show that SIgA interacts specifically with mucosal microfold cells present in the nasal-associated lymphoid tissue. p24-SIgA complexes are quickly taken up in the nasal cavity and selectively engulfed by mucosal dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing nonintegrin-positive dendritic cells. Nasal immunization with p24-SIgA elicits both a strong humoral and cellular immune response against p24 at the systemic and mucosal levels. This ensures effective protection against intranasal challenge with recombinant vaccinia virus encoding p24. CONCLUSION: This study represents the first example that underscores the remarkable potential of SIgA to serve as a carrier for a protein antigen in a mucosal vaccine approach targeting the nasal environment.

Immune Evasion by Borrelia burgdorferi – With Special Reference to CD38-mediated Chemotaxis of Neutrophils and Dendritic Cells

Lyme borreliosis is a tick-transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. The tick injects bacteria into host skin, where a first line defence, mainly the complement system, neutrophils, dendritic cells and macrophages are ready to attack foreign intruders. However, in the case of Lyme borreliosis, the original immune response in the skin is untypically mild among bacterial infections. A further untypical feature is the ability of B. burgdorferi to disseminate to distant organs, where, in some patients, symptoms appear after years after the original infection. This study aimed at uncovering some of the immune evasion mechanisms utilized by B. burgdorferi against the complement system, neutrophils and dendritic cells. B. burgdorferi was shown to inhibit chemotaxis of human neutrophils towards nformyl- methyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP). Outer surface protein B (OspB) of B. burgdorferi was shown to promote resistance to the attack of the complement system and neutrophil phagocytosis at low complement concentrations. B. burgdorferi was shown to inhibit migration of dendritic cells in vitro towards CCL19 and CCL21 and also in an in vivo model. This effect was shown to be due to the absence of CD38 on the borrelia-stimulated dendritic cell surface. A defect in p38 mitogen-activated-protein-kinase (p38) signaling was linked to defective CD38 expression. A defect in CD38 expression on B. burgdorferi-stimulated neutrophils was also observed. In this study, a number of novel immune evasion strategies utilized by B burgdorferi were chracterized. However, further studies are needed as other immune evasion mechanisms await to be uncovered.

Functional changes of dendritic cells in hypersensivity reactions to amoxicillin

A better understanding of dendritic cell (DC) involvement in responses to haptenic drugs is needed, because it represents a possible approach to the development of an in vitro test, which could identify patients prone to drug allergies. There are two main DC subsets: plasmacytoid DC (pDC) and myeloid DC (mDC). β-lactams form hapten-carrier conjugates and may provide a suitable model to study DC behavior in drug allergy reactions. It has been demonstrated that drugs interact differently with DC in drug allergic and non-allergic patients, but there are no studies regarding these subsets. Our aim was to assess the functional changes of mDC and pDC harvested from an amoxicillin-hypersensitive 32-year-old woman who experienced a severe maculopapular exanthema as reflected in interleukin-6 (IL-6) production after stimulation with this drug and penicillin. We also aim to demonstrate, for the first time, the feasibility of this method for dendritic cell isolation followed by in vitro stimulation for studies of drug allergy physiopathology. DC were harvested using a double Percoll density gradient, which generates a basophil-depleted cell (BDC) suspension. Further, pDC were isolated by blood DC antigen 4-positive magnetic selection and gravity filtration through magnetized columns. After stimulation with amoxicillin, penicillin and positive and negative controls, IL-6 production was measured by ELISA. A positive dose-response curve for IL-6 after stimulation with amoxicillin and penicillin was observed for pDC, but not for mDC or BDC suspension. These preliminary results demonstrate the feasibility of this methodology to expand the knowledge of the effect of dendritic cell activation by drug allergens.

Co-culture of apoptotic breast cancer cells with immature dendritic cells: a novel approach for DC-based vaccination in breast cancer

A dendritic cell (DC)-based vaccine strategy could reduce the risk of recurrence and improve the survival of breast cancer patients. However, while therapy-induced apoptosis of hepatocellular and colorectal carcinoma cells can enhance maturation and antigen presentation of DCs, whether this effect occurs in breast cancer is currently unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effect of doxorubicin (ADM)-induced apoptotic MCF-7 breast cancer cells on the activation of DCs. ADM-induced apoptotic MCF-7 cells could effectively induce immature DC (iDC) maturation. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of DC maturity marker CD83 was 23.3 in the ADM-induced apoptotic MCF-7 cell group compared with 8.5 in the MCF-7 cell group. The MFI of DC co-stimulatory marker CD86 and HLA-DR were also increased after iDCs were treated with ADM-induced apoptotic MCF-7 cells. Furthermore, the proliferating autologous T-lymphocytes increased from 14.2 to 40.3% after incubated with DCs induced by apoptotic MCF-7 cells. The secretion of interferon-γ by these T-lymphocytes was also increased. In addition, cell-cell interaction between apoptotic MCF-7 cells and iDCs, but not soluble factors released by apoptotic MCF-7 cells, was crucial for the maturation of iDCs. These findings constitute a novel in vitro DC-based vaccine strategy for the treatment of breast cancer by ADM-induced apoptotic MCF-7 cells.

Étude génétique et fonctionnelle des Interferon-producing Killer Dendritic Cells

L’idée qu’une cellule puisse effectuer la cytolyse de cellules transformées, comme une cellule Natural Killer (NK), tout en ayant la capacité de présenter des antigènes, comme une cellule dendritique (DC), peut sembler fantaisiste. Cependant, de telles cellules furent bel et bien identifiées chez la souris en 2006. Ces cellules, nommées Interferon-producing Killer Dendritic Cells (IKDC), furent l’objet d’une caractérisation extensive qui révéla leur énorme potentiel immunologique. La combinaison de fonctions associées à des cellules NK et à des DC a doté les IKDC d’un pouvoir antitumoral remarquable. D’ailleurs, il a été démontré que les IKDC sont plus efficaces que les cellules NK pour limiter la croissance tumorale. Ainsi, suite à leur découverte, les IKDC ont suscité beaucoup d’intérêt. Cependant, une controverse émergea sur la nature des IKDC. Plusieurs groupes indépendants tentèrent de reproduire les expériences attestant les fonctions de DC des IKDC, sans y parvenir. De plus, des études additionnelles révélèrent que les IKDC possèdent des similitudes très importantes avec les cellules NK. Ces observations ont mené la communauté scientifique à suggérer que les IKDC sont des cellules NK en état d’activation (aNK). Malgré cette controverse, les caractéristiques antitumorales des IKDC sont si uniques et considérables qu’il est primordial de poursuivre l’étude de ces cellules. Pour y arriver, il est essentiel de déterminer la nature des IKDC et de mettre fin à ce débat. Par la suite, il sera important d’identifier des façons de cibler spécifiquement les IKDC pour permettre leur usage dans le cadre de thérapies antitumorales. Ainsi, l’objectif de cette thèse est de définir l’identité des IKDC, puis de déterminer les facteurs génétiques responsables de la régulation de ces cellules. Nous avons démontré que les IKDC ne sont pas des cellules aNK, contrairement à ce qui avait été suggéré. Nous avons constaté que les IKDC prolifèrent activement et possèdent un phénotype unique, des caractéristiques associées à des cellules NK très immatures. Afin de déterminer si les IKDC peuvent acquérir un phénotype mature, nous avons effectué des expériences de transfert adoptif. Suite à leur injection in vivo, les IKDC acquièrent un phénotype de cellules matures, mais étonnamment, elles se différencient aussi en cellules NK. Ainsi, nous avons révélé que les IKDC sont un intermédiaire dans la différenciation des cellules NK. En parallèle, nous avons démontré que la proportion d’IKDC varie grandement entre des souris de fond génétique différent, indiquant que des facteurs génétiques sont impliqués dans la régulation de ces cellules. Nous avons alors effectué une analyse génétique qui a révélé que les IKDC sont régulées par des facteurs génétiques compris dans une région distale du chromosome 7. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse constituent une avancée importante pour la recherche sur les IKDC. Ils ont permis de définir la nature des IKDC et d’identifier un intervalle génétique impliqué dans la régulation de ces cellules. Ces découvertes sont des connaissances précieuses pour l’identification des IKDC chez l’Homme et la création de nouvelles thérapies dans la lutte contre le cancer.

Dynamic epigenetic changes in immune responses to infection in human dendritic cells

La méthylation de l'ADN est une marque épigénétique importante chez les mammifères. Malgré le fait que la méthylation de la cytosine en 5' (5mC) soit reconnue comme une modification épigénétique stable, il devient de plus en plus reconnu qu'elle soit un processus plus dynamique impliquant des voies de méthylation et de déméthylation actives. La dynamique de la méthylation de l'ADN est désormais bien caractérisée dans le développement et dans le fonctionnement cellulaire des mammifères. Très peu est cependant connu concernant les implications régulatrices dans les réponses immunitaires. Pour se faire, nous avons effectué des analyses du niveau de transcription des gènes ainsi que du profilage épigénétique de cellules dendritiques (DCs) humaines. Ceux-ci ont été faits avant et après infection par le pathogène Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Nos résultats fournissent le premier portrait génomique du remodelage épigénétique survenant dans les DCs en réponse à une infection bactérienne. Nous avons constaté que les changements dans la méthylation de l'ADN sont omniprésents, identifiant 3,926 régions différentiellement méthylées lors des infections par MTB (MTB-RDMs). Les MTB-RDMs montrent un chevauchement frappant avec les régions génomiques marquées par les histones associées avec des régions amplificatrices. De plus, nos analyses ont révélées que les MTB-RDMs sont activement liées par des facteurs de transcription associés à l'immunité avant même d'être infecté par MTB, suggérant ces domaines comme étant des éléments d'activation dans un état de dormance. Nos données suggèrent que les changements actifs dans la méthylation jouent un rôle essentiel pour contrôler la réponse cellulaire des DCs à l'infection bactérienne.

Effects of oxidised low density lipoprotein on dendritic cells: a possible immunoregulatory component of the atherogenic micro-environment?

Objective: The objective of this study was to explore the relationship between low density lipoprotein (LDL) and dendritic cell (DC) activation, based upon the hypothesis that reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated modification of proteins that may be present in local DC microenvironments could be important as mediators of this activation. Although LDL are known to be oxidised in vivo, and taken up by macrophages during atherogenesis; their effect on DC has not been explored previously. Methods: Human DCs were prepared from peripheral blood monocytes using GM-CSF and IL-4. Plasma LDLs were isolated by sequential gradient centrifugation, oxidised in CuSO4, and oxidation arrested to yield mild, moderate and highly oxidised LDL forms. DCs exposed to these LDLs were investigated using combined phenotypic, functional (autologous T cell activation), morphological and viability assays. Results: Highly-oxidised LDL increased DC HLA-DR, CD40 and CD86 expression, corroborated by increased DC-induced T cell proliferation. Both native and oxidised LDL induced prominent DC clustering. However, high concentrations of highly-oxidised LDL inhibited DC function, due to increased DC apoptosis. Conclusions: This study supports the hypothesis that oxidised LDL are capable of triggering the transition from sentinel to messenger DC. Furthermore, the DC clustering–activation–apoptosis sequence in the presence of different LDL forms is consistent with a regulatory DC role in immunopathogenesis of atheroma. A sequence of initial accumulation of DC, increasing LDL oxidation, and DC-induced T cell activation, may explain why local breach of tolerance can occur. Above a threshold level, however, supervening DC apoptosis limits this, contributing instead to the central plaque core.

What have dendritic cells ever done for adjuvant design? Cellular and molecular methods for the rational development of vaccine adjuvants

Our new molecular understanding of immune priming states that dendritic cell activation is absolutely pivotal for expansion and differentiation of naïve T lymphocytes, and it follows that understanding DC activation is essential to understand and design vaccine adjuvants. This chapter describes how dendritic cells can be used as a core tool to provide detailed quantitative and predictive immunomics information about how adjuvants function. The role of distinct antigen, costimulation, and differentiation signals from activated DC in priming is explained. Four categories of input signals which control DC activation – direct pathogen detection, sensing of injury or cell death, indirect activation via endogenous proinflammatory mediators, and feedback from activated T cells – are compared and contrasted. Practical methods for studying adjuvants using DC are summarised and the importance of DC subset choice, simulating T cell feedback, and use of knockout cells is highlighted. Finally, five case studies are examined that illustrate the benefit of DC activation analysis for understanding vaccine adjuvant function.

The Immunomodulatory Action of Sialostatin L on Dendritic Cells Reveals Its Potential to Interfere with Autoimmunity

Sialostatin L (SialoL) is a secreted cysteine protease inhibitor identified in the salivary glands of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis. In this study, we reveal the mechanisms of SialoL immunomodulatory actions on the vertebrate host. LPS-induced maturation of dendritic cells from C57BL/6 mice was significantly reduced in the presence of SialoL. Although OVA degradation was not affected by the presence of SialoL in dendritic cell cultures, cathepsin S activity was partially inhibited, leading to an accumulation of a 10-kDa invariant chain intermediate in these cells. As a consequence, in vitro Ag-specific CD4(+) T cell proliferation was inhibited in a time-dependent manner by SialoL, and further studies engaging cathepsin S(-/-) or cathepsin L(-/-) dendritic cells confirmed that the immunomodulatory actions of SialoL are mediated by inhibition of cathepsin S. Moreover, mice treated with SialoL displayed decreased early T cell expansion and recall response upon antigenic stimulation. Finally, SialoL administration during the immunization phase of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice significantly prevented disease symptoms, which was associated with impaired IFN-gamma and IL-17 production and specific T cell proliferation. These results illuminate the dual mechanism by which a human disease vector protein modulates vertebrate host immunity and reveals its potential in prevention of an autoimmune disease. The Journal of Immunology, 2009, 182: 7422-7429.