Synthetic studies of azulenyl and pseudoazulenyl nitrones

Free radicals have been implicated in various pathological conditions such as, stroke, aging and ischemic heart disease (IHD), as well as neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s disease. The role of antioxidants in protection from the harmful effects of free radicals has long been recognized. Trapping extremely reactive free radicals and eliminating them from circulation has been shown to be effective in animal models. Nitrone-based free radical traps have been extensively explored in biological systems. Examples include nitrones such as PBN, NXY-059, MDL-101,002, DMPO and EMPO. However, these nitrones have extremely high oxidation potentials as compared to natural antioxidants such as Vitamin E (α-tocopherol), and glutathione. Becker et al. (1995) synthesized novel azulenyl nitrones, which were shown to have oxidation potentials much lower than that of any of the previously reported nitrone based spin traps. Another azulenyl nitrone derivative, stilbazulenyl nitrone (STAZN), was shown to have an even lower oxidation potential within the range of natural antioxidants. STAZN, a second generation free radical trap, was found to be markedly superior than the two most studied nitrones, PBN and NXY-059, in animal models of cerebral ischemia and in an in vitro assay of lipid peroxidation. In this study, a third generation azulenyl nitrone was synthesized with an electron donating group on the previously synthesized STAZN derivative with the aim to lower the oxidation potential even more. Pseudoazulenes, because of the presence of an annular heteroatom, have been reported to possess even lower oxidation potential than that of the azulenyl counterpart. Therefore, pseudoazulenyl nitrones were synthesized for the first time by extracting and elaborating valtrate from the roots of Centranthus ruber (Red valerian or Jupiter’s beard). Several pseudoazulenyl nitrones were synthesized by using a facile experimental protocol. The physical and biological properties of these pseudoazulenyl nitrones can be easily modified by simply changing the substituent on the heteroatom. Cyclic voltammetry experiments have shown that these pseudoazulenyl nitrones do indeed have low oxidation potentials. The oxidation potential of these nitrones was lowered even more by preparing derivatives bearing an electron donating group at the 3-position of the five membered ring of the pseudoazulenyl nitrone.

Synthetic Studies of Azulenyl and Pseudoazulenyl Nitrones

Free radicals have been implicated in various pathological conditions such as, stroke, aging and ischemic heart disease (IHD), as well as neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s disease. The role of antioxidants in protection from the harmful effects of free radicals has long been recognized. Trapping extremely reactive free radicals and eliminating them from circulation has been shown to be effective in animal models. Nitrone-based free radical traps have been extensively explored in biological systems. Examples include nitrones such as PBN, NXY-059, MDL-101,002, DMPO and EMPO. However, these nitrones have extremely high oxidation potentials as compared to natural antioxidants such as Vitamin E (á-tocopherol), and glutathione. Becker et al. (1995) synthesized novel azulenyl nitrones, which were shown to have oxidation potentials much lower than that of any of the previously reported nitrone based spin traps. Another azulenyl nitrone derivative, stilbazulenyl nitrone (STAZN), was shown to have an even lower oxidation potential within the range of natural antioxidants. STAZN, a second generation free radical trap, was found to be markedly superior than the two most studied nitrones, PBN and NXY-059, in animal models of cerebral ischemia and in an in vitro assay of lipid peroxidation. In this study, a third generation azulenyl nitrone was synthesized with an electron donating group on the previously synthesized STAZN derivative with the aim to lower the oxidation potential even more. Pseudoazulenes, because of the presence of an annular heteroatom, have been reported to possess even lower oxidation potential than that of the azulenyl counterpart. Therefore, pseudoazulenyl nitrones were synthesized for the first time by extracting and elaborating valtrate from the roots of Centranthus ruber (Red valerian or Jupiter’s beard). Several pseudoazulenyl nitrones were synthesized by using a facile experimental protocol. The physical and biological properties of these pseudoazulenyl nitrones can be easily modified by simply changing the substituent on the heteroatom. Cyclic voltammetry experiments have shown that these pseudoazulenyl nitrones do indeed have low oxidation potentials. The oxidation potential of these nitrones was lowered even more by preparing derivatives bearing an electron donating group at the 3-position of the five membered ring of the pseudoazulenyl nitrone.

Good laboratory practice: preventing introduction of bias at the bench

Background and Purpose—As a research community, we have failed to demonstrate that drugs which show substantial efficacy in animal models of cerebral ischemia can also improve outcome in human stroke. Summary of Review—Accumulating evidence suggests this may be due, at least in part, to problems in the design, conduct and reporting of animal experiments which create a systematic bias resulting in the overstatement of neuroprotective efficacy. Conclusions—Here, we set out a series of measures to reduce bias in the design, conduct and reporting of animal experiments modeling human stroke.

High-resolution spatial mapping of changes in the neurochemical profile after focal ischemia in mice.

After ischemic stroke, the ischemic damage to brain tissue evolves over time and with an uneven spatial distribution. Early irreversible changes occur in the ischemic core, whereas, in the penumbra, which receives more collateral blood flow, the damage is more mild and delayed. A better characterization of the penumbra, irreversibly damaged and healthy tissues is needed to understand the mechanisms involved in tissue death. MRSI is a powerful tool for this task if the scan time can be decreased whilst maintaining high sensitivity. Therefore, we made improvements to a (1) H MRSI protocol to study middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. The spatial distribution of changes in the neurochemical profile was investigated, with an effective spatial resolution of 1.4 μL, applying the protocol on a 14.1-T magnet. The acquired maps included the difficult-to-separate glutamate and glutamine resonances and, to our knowledge, the first mapping of metabolites γ-aminobutyric acid and glutathione in vivo, within a metabolite measurement time of 45 min. The maps were in excellent agreement with findings from single-voxel spectroscopy and offer spatial information at a scan time acceptable for most animal models. The metabolites measured differed with respect to the temporal evolution of their concentrations and the localization of these changes. Specifically, lactate and N-acetylaspartate concentration changes largely overlapped with the T(2) -hyperintense region visualized with MRI, whereas changes in cholines and glutathione affected the entire middle cerebral artery territory. Glutamine maps showed elevated levels in the ischemic striatum until 8 h after reperfusion, and until 24 h in cortical tissue, indicating differences in excitotoxic effects and secondary energy failure in these tissue types. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenylnitrone improves recovery of brain energy state in rats following transient focal ischemia.

Recent results have demonstrated that the spin trapping agent N-tert-butyl-alpha-phenylnitrone (PBN) reduces infarct size due to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), even when given after ischemia. The objective of the present study was to explore whether PBN influences recovery of energy metabolism. MCAO of 2-hr duration was induced in rats by an intraluminal filament technique. Brains were frozen in situ at the end of ischemia and after 1, 2, and 4 hr of recirculation. PBN was given 1 hr after recirculation. Neocortical focal and perifocal ("penumbra") areas were sampled for analyses of phosphocreatine (PCr), creatine, ATP, ADP, AMP, glycogen, glucose, and lactate. The penumbra showed a moderate-to-marked decrease and the focus showed a marked decrease in PCr and ATP concentrations, a decline in the sum of adenine nucleotides, near-depletion of glycogen, and an increase in lactate concentration after 2 hr of ischemia. Recirculation for 1 hr led to only a partial recovery of energy state, with little further improvement after 2 hr and signs of secondary deterioration after 4 hr, particularly in the focus. After 4 hr of recirculation, PBN-treated animals showed pronounced recovery of energy state, with ATP and lactate contents in both focus and penumbra approaching normal values. Although an effect of PBN on mitochondria cannot be excluded, the results suggest that PBN acts by preventing a gradual compromise of microcirculation. The results justify a reevaluation of current views on the pathophysiology of focal ischemic damage and suggest that a therapeutic window of many hours exists in stroke.

Enhancement of autophagic flux after neonatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia and its region-specific relationship to apoptotic mechanisms.

The multiplicity of cell death mechanisms induced by neonatal hypoxia-ischemia makes neuroprotective treatment against neonatal asphyxia more difficult to achieve. Whereas the roles of apoptosis and necrosis in such conditions have been studied intensively, the implication of autophagic cell death has only recently been considered. Here, we used the most clinically relevant rodent model of perinatal asphyxia to investigate the involvement of autophagy in hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. Seven-day-old rats underwent permanent ligation of the right common carotid artery, followed by 2 hours of hypoxia. This condition not only increased autophagosomal abundance (increase in microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-11 level and punctuate labeling) but also lysosomal activities (cathepsin D, acid phosphatase, and beta-N-acetylhexosaminidase) in cortical and hippocampal CA3-damaged neurons at 6 and 24 hours, demonstrating an increase in the autophagic flux. In the cortex, this enhanced autophagy may be related to apoptosis since some neurons presenting a high level of autophagy also expressed apoptotic features, including cleaved caspase-3. On the other hand, enhanced autophagy in CA3 was associated with a more purely autophagic cell death phenotype. In striking contrast to CA3 neurons, those in CA1 presented only a minimal increase in autophagy but strong apoptotic characteristics. These results suggest a role of enhanced autophagy in delayed neuronal death after severe hypoxia-ischemia that is differentially linked to apoptosis according to the cerebral region.

Autosis is a Na+,K+-ATPase-regulated form of cell death triggered by autophagy-inducing peptides, starvation, and hypoxia-ischemia.

A long-standing controversy is whether autophagy is a bona fide cause of mammalian cell death. We used a cell-penetrating autophagy-inducing peptide, Tat-Beclin 1, derived from the autophagy protein Beclin 1, to investigate whether high levels of autophagy result in cell death by autophagy. Here we show that Tat-Beclin 1 induces dose-dependent death that is blocked by pharmacological or genetic inhibition of autophagy, but not of apoptosis or necroptosis. This death, termed "autosis," has unique morphological features, including increased autophagosomes/autolysosomes and nuclear convolution at early stages, and focal swelling of the perinuclear space at late stages. We also observed autotic death in cells during stress conditions, including in a subpopulation of nutrient-starved cells in vitro and in hippocampal neurons of neonatal rats subjected to cerebral hypoxia-ischemia in vivo. A chemical screen of ~5,000 known bioactive compounds revealed that cardiac glycosides, antagonists of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase, inhibit autotic cell death in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, genetic knockdown of the Na(+),K(+)-ATPase α1 subunit blocks peptide and starvation-induced autosis in vitro. Thus, we have identified a unique form of autophagy-dependent cell death, a Food and Drug Administration-approved class of compounds that inhibit such death, and a crucial role for Na(+),K(+)-ATPase in its regulation. These findings have implications for understanding how cells die during certain stress conditions and how such cell death might be prevented.

Ictal cerebral positron emission tomography (PET) in focal status epilepticus.

The diagnosis of focal status epilepticus (SE) can be challenging, particularly when clinical manifestations leave doubts about its nature, and electroencephalography (EEG) is not conclusive. This work addresses the utility of ictal (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose ((18)F-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) in focal SE, which was performed in eight patients in whom SE was finally diagnosed. Clinical, MRI and EEG data were reviewed. (18)F-FDG-PET proved useful: (1) to establish the diagnosis of focal SE, when clinical elements were equivocal or the EEG did not show clear-cut epileptiform abnormalities; (2) to delineate the epileptogenic area in view of possible resective surgery; and (3) when clinical features, MRI and EEG were incongruent regarding the origin of SE. We suggest that ictal (18)F-FDG-PET may represent a valuable diagnostic tool in selected patients with focal SE or frequent focal seizures.

Neuronal death after perinatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia: Focus on autophagy-mediated cell death.

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy is a critical cerebral event occurring around birth with high mortality and neurological morbidity associated with long-term invalidating sequelae. In view of the great clinical importance of this condition and the lack of very efficacious neuroprotective strategies, it is urgent to better understand the different cell death mechanisms involved with the ultimate aim of developing new therapeutic approaches. The morphological features of three different cell death types can be observed in models of perinatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia: necrotic, apoptotic and autophagic cell death. They may be combined in the same dying neuron. In the present review, we discuss the different cell death mechanisms involved in neonatal cerebral hypoxia-ischemia with a special focus on how autophagy may be involved in neuronal death, based: (1) on experimental models of perinatal hypoxia-ischemia and stroke, and (2) on the brains of human neonates who suffered from neonatal hypoxia-ischemia.

Análise comparativa dos padrões neurodegenerativos da substância cinzenta em diferentes áreas corticais de ratos adultos submetidos à lesão isquêmica focal

O acidente vascular encefálico (AVE) pode ocorrer em qual região do Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC), sendo o córtex cerebral é uma das regiões mais frequentemente afetadas por essa desordem neural aguda, embora inexistam investigações que tenham comparado o padrão lesivo em diferentes regiões corticais após isquemia focal de mesma intensidade. O objetivo desta investigação foi avaliar o padrão degenerativo de diferentes áreas corticais após lesão isquêmica focal. Para isso, induziu-se isquemia focal por microinjeções estereotáxicas de endotelina-1 (ET-1) nos córtices somestésico, motor e de associação de ratos adultos (N=45). Nos animais controle injetou-se o mesmo volume de solução salina estéril (N=27). Os animais foram perfundidos 1, 3, e 7 dias após o evento isquêmico. O encéfalo foi removido, pós-fixado, crioprotegido e seccionado em criostato. A histopatologia geral foi avaliada em secções de 50 coradas pela violeta de cresila. Secções de 20μm foram submetidas à imunoistoquímica para marcação de astrócitos (anti-GFAP), micróglia/macrófagos ativados (anti-ED1) e microglia em geral (anti-Iba1). Avaliou-se os padrões lesivos qualitativamente (por inspeção em microscópio óptico) e quantitativamente (pela contagem do número de células nos lados ipsi e contralateral à lesão), pela estatística descritiva e comparações intra e intergrupos com análise de variância com correção a posteriori de Tukey. Os animais isquêmicos apresentaram conspícua perda tecidual, ativação microglial e astrocitose entre 3 e 7 dias após a indução isquêmica, o que não foi observado nos animais controle. A perda tecidual e a ativação de células gliais foram mais intensas no córtex somestésico, depois no córtex motor, com intensidade reduzida na área de associação, o que foi confirmado por análise quantitativa. Os resultados sugerem que uma lesão isquêmica de mesma intensidade induz um padrão diferencial de perda tecidual e neuroinflamação, dependendo da área cortical, e que as áreas sensoriais primárias e motoras são mais susceptíveis ao processo isquêmico do que áreas de associação.

Perda neuronal, ativação glial, neurogênese e alterações sensório-motoras após isquemia focal no córtex somestésico de ratos adultos

O Acidente vascular encefálico (AVE) é considerado uma das mais importantes causas de morte e perda funcional no mundo. Poucas condições neurológicas são tão complexas e devastadoras, provocando déficits neurológicos incapacitantes ou óbito nos sobreviventes. As regiões corticais são comumente afetadas por AVE, o que resulta em perda sensorial e motora. O estabelecimento dos padrões neuropatológicos em regiões corticais, incluindo a área somestésica, é fundamental para a investigação de possíveis intervenções terapêuticas. No presente estudo, investigamos os padrões de perda neuronal, microgliose, astrocitose, neurogênese e os déficits funcionais no córtex somestésico primário de ratos adultos, submetidos á lesões isquêmicas focais, induzidas por microinjeções de 40p Moles de endotelina-1 (ET-1). Foram utilizados 30 ratos (Rattus Norvegicus) da linhagem Wistar, adultos jovens, pesando entre 250-280g. Os animais foram divididos em grupos isquêmicos (N= 21) e controle (N=9). Os mesmos foram perfundidos nos tempos de sobrevida de 1, 3 e 7 dias. Os animais do grupo de 7 dias foram submetidos à testes comportamentais para avaliar a perda de função sensório-motora. Secções foram coradas pela violeta de cresila, citocromo oxidase e imunomarcadas para identificação neurônios (anti-NeuN), microglia ativada e não ativada (Iba-1), macrófagos/microglia ativados (ED-1), astrócitos (GFAP) e neuroblastos (DCX). As comparações estatísticas entre os grupos foram feitas por análise de variância (ANOVA), um critério com correção a posteriore de Tukey. Os animais isquêmicos apresentaram déficits sensório-motores revelados pela Escala Neurológica de Bederson, Teste de Colocação da Pata Anterior e Teste do Canto. Microinjeções de ET-1 induziram lesão isquêmica focal na área somestésica primária com perda neuronal, astrocitose e microgliose progressivas principalmente nos tempos mais tardios. A coloração para citocromo oxidase revelou o campo de barris, mas, inesperadamente, marcou uma população de células inflamatórias com características de macrófagos na região isquêmica. Houve aumento do número de neuroblastos, principalmente ao sétimo dia, na zona subventricular do hemisfério isquêmico, em relação ao hemisfério contralateral e animais controle. Não houve migração significativa de neuroblastos no córtex somestésico isquêmico. Os resultados mostram que microinjeções de ET-1 são um método eficaz para indução de perda tecidual e déficits sensoriais no córtex somestésico primário de ratos adultos. Também se evidencia que a zona subventricular é influenciada por eventos isquêmicos distantes e que populações macrofágicas parecem aumentar o padrão de expressão de citocromo oxidase. O referido modelo experimental pode ser utilizado em estudos futuros onde agentes neuroprotetores em potencial podem ser utilizados para minimizar as alterações neuropatológicas descritas.

Efeito combinado do exercício físico e da degradação da matriz extracelular na plasticidade do córtex cerebral após isquemia

O acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) é a maior causa de mortes e incapacidades neurológicas no Brasil, e mais de 80% deles são decorrentes de evento isquêmico. Os sobreviventes de AVC apresentam uma variedade de déficits motores, cognitivos e sensoriais, que prejudicam suas atividades de vida diária, limitando assim sua independência. Portanto, torna-se cada vez mais necessário elaborar estratégias terapêuticas que promovam a recuperação funcional de pacientes acometidos por AVC. Após isquemia do tecido nervoso, ocorre no meio extracelular a super expressão de moléculas inibitórias a regeneração neuronal e à plasticidade sináptica, como os proteoglicanos de sulfato de condroitina (PGSCs), o principal componente das redes perineuronais (RPNs). A remoção destas moléculas com a ação da enzima condroitinase ABC (ChABC) tem sido usada como estratégia para induzir a plasticidade neuronal. Outro fator que tem sido utilizado para estimular a neuroplasticidade é o exercício físico específico para o membro afetado após AVC. O exercício físico está relacionado à liberação de neurotrofinas, importantes para a regeneração do sistema nervoso. Portanto, a remoção dos PGSCs junto com o exercício físico pode potencializar a indução da plasticidade cerebral e recuperação funcional após lesão isquêmica experimental na área sensório-motora de ratos. Para testar nossa hipótese, utilizamos n=16 ratos (Ratus norvergicus) da linhagem Wistar, divididos nos seguintes grupos experimentais (todos com sobrevida de 21 dias após AVC isquêmico): Grupo Controle ou BSA (Isquemia experimental, implante de Elvax saturado com BSA); Grupo Exercício (Isquemia experimental, implante de Elvax saturado com BSA + exercício físico específico); Grupo ChABC (Isquemia experimental, implante de Elvax saturado com ChABC); e Grupo ChABC + Exercício (Isquemia experimental, implante de Elvax saturado com ChABC + exercício físico específico). A lesão isquêmica foi induzida através de microinjeções do vasoconstritor Endotelina-1 (ET-1) no córtex sensório-motor, na representação da pata anterior. Logo em seguida foi implantado uma microfatia de polímero de Etileno vinil acetato saturado com ChABC (grupos ChABC e ChABC + Exercício) ou BSA (grupos Controle e Exercício). Foram avaliadas a área de lesão e a degradação dos PGSCs, além da recuperação funcional da pata afetada através do teste da exploração vertical e do teste da escada horizontal. Avaliamos a área de lesão (mm²) com auxílio do programa ImageJ (NIH, USA), delimitando a área com palor celular e também marcada com azul de colanil que estava presente na solução de injeção do peptídeo vasoconstritor ET-1 e verificamos que não houve diferença significativa no tamanho da área de lesão entre os grupos Controle (0,48±0,12), Exercício (0,46±0,05), ChABC (0,50±0,18) e ChABC + Exercício (0,55±0,05) (ANOVA, pós-teste de Tukey, ***p<0,001; **<0,01; *p<0,5). Animais que foram submetidos à remoção enzimática dos PGSCs apresentaram imunomarcação para o anticorpo anti-condroitin-4-sulfato (C4S) na área de lesão ao final da sobrevida, não havendo evidencias de degradação de PGSCs nos grupos Controle e Exercício. Verificamos ainda no teste do cilindro que a indução da lesão isquêmica não provocou perda funcional ampla, não alterando o comportamento exploratório, nem a frequência de uso da pata anterior afetada dos animais após a lesão (grupo Controle: pré-lesão ou baseline (0,33±0,10), 3 (0,29±0,17), 7 (0,30±0,10), 14 (0,29±0,16) e 21 (0,27±0,13) dias após a lesão; grupo Exercício: pré-lesão ou baseline (0,30±0,12), 3 (0,32±0,24), 7 (0,19±0,37), 14 (0,31±0,10) e 21 (0,32±0,09) dias após a lesão; grupo ChABC: pré-lesão ou baseline (0,34±0,07), 3 (0,20±0,11), 7 (0,23±0,07), 14 (0,33±0,14) e 21 (0,39±0,16) dias após a lesão; grupo ChABC + Exercício: pré-lesão ou baseline (0,34±0,04), 3 (0,20±0,09), 7 (0,26±0,04), 14 (0,18±0,08) e 21 (0,27±0,04) dias após a lesão) (ANOVA, pós-teste de Tukey, ***p<0,001; **<0,01; *p<0,5). O grupo que teve apenas a remoção dos PGSCs apresentou um melhor desempenho motor no teste da escada horizontal, mantendo sua frequência de acertos quando comparado aos demais grupos, sendo que ao final da sobrevida de 21 dias, os grupos Controle e ChABC + Exercício alcançaram uma recuperação espontânea (equivalente ao teste pré-lesão), se aproximando do grupo ChABC. Apenas o grupo tratado somente com Exercício não alcançou a recuperação espontânea, apresentando um desempenho motor significativamente inferior aos demais grupos em todos os momentos de reavaliação (grupo Controle: pré-lesão ou baseline (7,70±0,54), 3 (5,30±0,71), 7 (5,4±1,14), 14 (5,20±0,37) e 21 (6,70±0,48) dias após a lesão; grupo Exercício: pré-lesão ou baseline (8,40±0,28), 3 (4,30±0,48), 7 (4,75±0,50), 14 (5,35±0,41) e 21 (5,05±0,67) dias após a lesão; grupo ChABC: pré-lesão ou baseline (7,65±0,97), 3 (6,90±0,65), 7 (7,80±0,37), 14 (7,15±0,87) e 21 (7,45±0,32) dias após a lesão; e grupo ChABC + Exercício: pré-lesão ou baseline (8,10±0,22), 3 (3,65±1,48), 7 (4,95±1,06), 14 (7,35±0,37) e 21 (6,70±0,48) dias após a lesão (ANOVA, pós-teste de Tukey, ***p<0,001; **<0,01; *p<0,5). Portanto, a remoção dos PGSCs, o exercício físico forçado precoce e sua associação não influenciaram no tamanho da área de lesão após isquemia focal no córtex sensório-motor. Porém, apenas a remoção dos PGSCs das redes perineuronais melhorou precocemente o desempenho motor do membro afetado após isquemia focal no córtex sensório-motor. Enquanto que a remoção dos PGSCs associada ao exercício físico melhorou o desempenho motor do membro afetado após a lesão, porém essa melhora foi tardia. E o exercício físico aplicado precocemente após isquemia focal no córtex sensório-motor prejudicou o desempenho motor do membro afetado.

Protective Effect of Focal Adhesion Kinase against Skeletal Muscle Reperfusion Injury after Acute Limb Ischemia.

OBJECTIVES In cardiac muscle, ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury is attenuated by mitochondrial function, which may be upregulated by focal adhesion kinase (FAK). The aim of this study was to determine whether increased FAK levels reduced rhabdomyolysis in skeletal muscle too. MATERIAL AND METHODS In a translational in vivo experiment, rat lower limbs were subjected to 4 hours of ischemia followed by 24 or 72 hours of reperfusion. FAK expression was stimulated 7 days before (via somatic transfection with pCMV-driven FAK expression plasmid) and outcomes were measured against non-transfected and empty transfected controls. Slow oxidative (i.e., mitochondria-rich) and fast glycolytic (i.e., mitochondria-poor) type muscles were analyzed separately regarding rhabdomyolysis, apoptosis, and inflammation. Severity of IR injury was assessed using paired non-ischemic controls. RESULTS After 24 hours of reperfusion, marked rhabdomyolysis was found in non-transfected and empty plasmid-transfected fast-type glycolytic muscle, tibialis anterior. Prior transfection enhanced FAK concentration significantly (p = 0.01). Concomitantly, levels of BAX, promoting mitochondrial transition pores, were reduced sixfold (p = 0.02) together with a blunted inflammation (p = 0.01) and reduced rhabdomyolysis (p = 0.003). Slow oxidative muscle, m. soleus, reacted differently: although apoptosis was detectable after IR, rhabdomyolysis did not appear before 72 hours of reperfusion; and FAK levels were not enhanced in ischemic muscle despite transfection (p = 0.66). CONCLUSIONS IR-induced skeletal muscle rhabdomyolysis is a fiber type-specific phenomenon that appears to be modulated by mitochondria reserves. Stimulation of FAK may exploit these reserves constituting a potential therapeutic approach to reduce tissue loss following acute limb IR in fast-type muscle.

The use of spreading depression waves for acute and long-term monitoring of the penumbra zone of focal ischemic damage in rats.

Slow potential recording was used for long-term monitoring of the penumbra zone surrounding an ischemic region produced by middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion in adult hooded rats (n = 32). Four capillary electrodes (El-E4) were chronically implanted at 2-mm intervals from AP -3, L 2 (El) to AP 0, L 5 (E4). Spontaneous or evoked slow potential waves of spreading depression (SD) were recorded during and 4 h after a 1-h MCA occlusion and at 2- to 3-day intervals afterward for 3 weeks. Duration of the initial focal ischemic depolarization was maximal at E4 and decreased with distance from the focus. SD waves in the penumbra zone were high at El and E2, low and prolonged at E3, and almost absent at E4. Amplitude of elicited SD waves was further reduced 3 days later and slowly increased in the following week. Cortical areas displaying marked reduction of SD waves in the first days after MCA occlusion either remained low or showed substantial (60%) recovery, the probability of which decreased with the duration of the initial focal ischemic depolarization and increased with the distance from the focus. It is concluded that the outcome of ischemia monitored by long-term SD recovery in the perifocal region can be partly predicted from the acute signs of MCA occlusion.