Support area as an indicator of environmental load: Comparison between Embodied Energy, Ecological Footprint, and Emergy Accounting methods

Environmental aspects have been acknowledged as an important issue in decision making at any field during the last two decades. There are several available methodologies able to assess the environmental burden, among which the Ecological Footprint has been widely used due to its easy-to-understand final indicator. However, its theoretical base has been target of some criticisms about the inadequate representation of the sustainability concept by its final indicator. In a parallel way, efforts have been made to use the theoretical strength of the Emergy Accounting to obtain an index similar to that supplied by the Ecological Footprint. Focusing on these aspects, this work assesses the support area (SA) index for Brazilian sugarcane and American corn crop through four different approaches: Embodied Energy Analysis (SA(EE)), Ecological Footprint (SA(EF)), Renewable Empower Density (SA(R)), and Emergy Net Primary Productivity (SA(NPP)). Results indicate that the load on environment varies accordingly to the methodology considered for its calculation, in which emergy approach showed the higher values. Focusing on crops comparison, the load by producing both crops are similar with an average of 0.04 ha obtained by SA(EE), 1.86 ha by SA(EF), 4.24 ha by SA(R), and 4.32 ha by SA(NPP). Discussion indicates that support area calculated using Emergy Accounting is more eligible to represent the load on the environment due to its global scale view. Nevertheless, each methodology has its contribution depending of the study objectives, but it is important to consider the real meaning and the scope of each one. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Genetic variability and phylogenetic aspects in species of the genus Macrobrachium

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Economic aspects of production of Caiman crocodilus yacare

The breeding of crocodilians is still a recent activity in Brazil. Its peak was in the 1990's, but it has gaps in its production, as there are no norms for the commercial breeding of these animals in captivity. However, its economic potential is great, and the search for ecological balance and viability of commercial production has become a challenge among farmers of this activity. Therefor, the objective of the study was to economically analyze the production of Caiman crocodilus yacare on a farm located in Caceres, state of Mato Grosso, identifying relevant items of costs in the activity, as well as the parameters related to the profitability and viability of the activity. The economic results for the breeding of this animal were positive, with profitability ratios higher than 70%.

Morphological, histological, histochemical and behavioral aspects during early development of red porgy Pagrus pagrus L. reared in mesocosm.

[EN]The present study provides a description of the morphological, histological and histochemical development, and the ecological implications of red porgy larvae reared in mesocosm, from hatching to 30 days after hatching (DAH).

Pedagogical Aspects of Sustainable Development"

The project produced three main sets of results. The first is related to the conception of ecological education, the second to an investigation of the current situation in ecological education in secondary schools in the Czech Republic, and the third presents ways and means of improving ecological education in schools. Kvasnickova first developed ideas on attitudes to the environment, clarified the term "ecological education" and carried out a methodological analysis of the systematic conception of ecological education, She then investigated the current situation of such education in various types of secondary schools throughout the country. Her results showed that the main problems of ecological education are the lack of an integrated approach to such education, the inadequate preparation of teachers and the lack of information in the area. During the project, she ran many seminars to increase teachers' qualifications for ecological education and prepared various textbooks, methodological guides and teaching aids.

Productive Diversification and Sustainable Use of Complex Social-Ecological Systems: A Comparative Study of Indigenous and Settler Communities in the Bolivian Amazon

Agricultural and forest productive diversification depends on multiple socioeconomic drivers—like knowledge, migration, productive capacity, and market—that shape productive strategies and influence their ecological impacts. Our comparison of indigenous and settlers allows a better understanding of how societies develop different diversification strategies in similar ecological contexts and how the related socioeconomic aspects of diversification are associated with land cover change. Our results suggest that although indigenous people cause less deforestation and diversify more, diversification is not a direct driver of deforestation reduction. A multidimensional approach linking sociocognitive, economic, and ecological patterns of diversification helps explain this contradiction.

Matching Social and Ecological Systems in Complex Ocean Fisheries

This paper considers ocean fisheries as complex adaptive systems and addresses the question of how human institutions might be best matched to their structure and function. Ocean ecosystems operate at multiple scales, but the management of fisheries tends to be aimed at a single species considered at a single broad scale. The paper argues that this mismatch of ecological and management scale makes it difficult to address the fine-scale aspects of ocean ecosystems, and leads to fishing rights and strategies that tend to erode the underlying structure of populations and the system itself. A successful transition to ecosystem-based management will require institutions better able to economize on the acquisition of feedback about the impact of human activities. This is likely to be achieved by multiscale institutions whose organization mirrors the spatial organization of the ecosystem and whose communications occur through a polycentric network. Better feedback will allow the exploration of fine-scale science and the employment of fine-scale fishing restraints, better adapted to the behavior of fish and habitat. The scale and scope of individual fishing rights also needs to be congruent with the spatial structure of the ecosystem. Place-based rights can be expected to create a longer private planning horizon as well as stronger incentives for the private and public acquisition of system relevant knowledge.

Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources = Integración de aspectos socioeconómicos y genéticos involucrados en la conservación de recursos genéticos animales

El sector ganadero está siendo gradualmente dominado por sistemas intensivos y especializados en los que los factores de producción están controlados y en los que los caracteres productivos son los criterios principales para la selección de especies y razas. Entretanto, muchos de los bienes y servicios que tradicionalmente suministraba el ganado, tales como los fertilizantes, la tracción animal o materias primas para la elaboración vestimenta y calzado están siendo reemplazados por productos industriales. Como consecuencia de ambos cambios, las razas seleccionadas intensivamente, las cuales están estrechamente ligadas a sistemas agrícolas de alta producción y altos insumos, han desplazado a muchas razas autóctonas, en las que la selección prácticamente ha cesado o es muy poco intensa. Actualmente existe una mayor conciencia social sobre la situación de las razas autóctonas y muchas funciones del ganado que previamente habían sido ignoradas están siendo reconocidas. Desde hace algunas décadas, se ha aceptado internacionalmente que las razas de ganado cumplen funciones económicas, socio-culturales, medioambientales y de seguridad alimentaria. Por ello, diferentes organismos internacionales han reconocido que la disminución de los recursos genéticos de animales domésticos (RGADs) es un problema grave y han recomendado su conservación. Aun así, la conservación de RGADs es un tema controvertido por la dificultad de valorar las funciones del ganado. Esta valoración es compleja debido que los RGADs tiene una doble naturaleza privada - pública. Como algunos economistas han subrayado, el ganado es un bien privado, sin embargo debido a algunas de sus funciones, también es un bien público. De esta forma, el aumento del conocimiento sobre valor de cada una de sus funciones facilitaría la toma de decisiones en relación a su conservación y desarrollo. Sin embargo, esta valoración es controvertida puesto que la importancia relativa de las funciones del ganado varía en función del momento, del lugar, de las especies y de las razas. El sector ganadero, debido a sus múltiples funciones, está influenciado por factores técnicos, medioambientales, sociales, culturales y políticos que están interrelacionados y que engloban a una enorme variedad de actores y procesos. Al igual que las funciones del ganado, los factores que afectan a su conservación y desarrollo están fuertemente condicionados por localización geográfica. Asimismo, estos factores pueden ser muy heterogéneos incluso dentro de una misma raza. Por otro lado, es razonable pensar que el ganadero es el actor principal de la conservación de razas locales. Actualmente, las razas locales están siendo Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 5 explotadas por ganaderos muy diversos bajo sistemas de producción también muy diferentes. Por todo ello, es de vital importancia comprender y evaluar el impacto que tienen las motivaciones, y el proceso de toma de decisiones de los ganaderos en la estructura genética de las razas. En esta tesis doctoral exploramos diferentes aspectos sociales, económicos y genéticos involucrados en la conservación de razas locales de ganado vacuno en Europa, como ejemplo de RGADs, esperando contribuir al entendimiento científico de este complejo tema. Nuestro objetivo es conseguir una visión global de los procesos subyacentes en la conservación y desarrollo de estas razas. Pretendemos ilustrar como se pueden utilizar métodos cuantitativos en el diseño y establecimiento de estrategias de conservación y desarrollo de RGADs objetivas y adecuadas. En primer lugar, exploramos el valor económico total (VET) del ganado analizando sus componentes públicos fuera de mercado usando como caso de estudio la raza vacuna Alistana-Sanabresa (AS). El VET de cualquier bien está formado por componentes de uso y de no-uso. Estos últimos incluyen el valor de opción, el valor de herencia y el valor de existencia. En el caso del ganado local, el valor de uso directo proviene de sus productos. Los valores de uso indirecto están relacionados con el papel que cumple las razas en el mantenimiento de los paisajes y cultura rural. El valor de opción se refiere a su futuro uso potencial y el valor de herencia al uso potencial de las generaciones venideras. Finalmente, el valor de existencia está relacionado con el bienestar que produce a la gente saber que existe un recurso específico. Nuestro objetivo fue determinar la importancia relativa que tienen los componentes fuera de mercado sobre el VET de la raza AS. Para ello evaluamos la voluntad de la gente a pagar por la conservación de la AS mediante experimentos de elección (EEs) a través de encuestas. Estos experimentos permiten valorar individualmente los distintos componentes del VET de cualquier bien. Los resultados los analizamos mediante de uso de modelos aleatorios logit. Encontramos que las funciones públicas de la raza AS tienen un valor significativo. Sus valores más importantes son el valor de uso indirecto como elemento cultural Zamorano y el valor de existencia (ambos representaron el 80% de VET). Además observamos que el valor que gente da a las funciones públicas de la razas de ganado dependen de sus características socioeconómicas. Los factores que condicionaron la voluntad a pagar para la conservación de la raza AS fueron el lugar de residencia (ciudad o pueblo), el haber visto animales de la raza o haber consumido sus productos y la actitud de los encuestados ante los conflictos entre el desarrollo económico y el medioambiente. Por otro lado, encontramos que no todo el mundo tiene una visión completa e integrada de todas las funciones públicas de la raza AS. Por este motivo, los programas o actividades de concienciación sobre su estado deberían hacer hincapié en este aspecto. La existencia de valores públicos de la raza AS implica que los ganaderos deberían recibir compensaciones económicas como pago por las funciones públicas que cumple su raza local. Las compensaciones asegurarían un tamaño de población que permitiría que la raza AS siga realizando estas funciones. Un mecanismo para ello podría ser el desarrollo del turismo rural relacionado con la raza. Esto aumentaría el valor de uso privado mientras que supondría un elemento añadido a las estrategias de conservación y desarrollo. No obstante, los ganaderos deben analizar cómo aprovechar los nichos de mercado existentes, así como mejorar la calidad de los productos de la raza prestando especial atención al etiquetado de los mismos. Una vez evaluada la importancia de las funciones públicas de las razas locales de ganado, analizamos la diversidad de factores técnicos, económicos y sociales de la producción de razas locales de ganado vacuno existente en Europa. Con este fin analizamos el caso de quince razas locales de ocho países en el contexto de un proyecto de colaboración internacional. Investigamos las diferencias entre los países para determinar los factores comunes clave que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales. Para ello entrevistamos mediante cuestionarios a un total de 355 ganaderos en las quince razas. Como indicador de viabilidad usamos los planes de los ganaderos de variación del tamaño de las ganaderías. Los cuestionarios incluían diferentes aspectos económicos, técnicos y sociales con potencial influencia en las dinámicas demográficas de las razas locales. Los datos recogidos los analizamos mediante distintas técnicas estadísticas multivariantes como el análisis discriminante y la regresión logística. Encontramos que los factores que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales en Europa son muy heterogéneos. Un resultado reseñable fue que los ganaderos de algunos países no consideran que la explotación de su raza tenga un alto valor social. Este hecho vuelve a poner de manifiesto la importancia de desarrollar programas Europeos de concienciación sobre la importancia de las funciones que cumplen las razas locales. Además los países analizados presentaron una alta variabilidad en cuanto a la importancia de los mercados locales en la distribución de los productos y en cuanto al porcentaje en propiedad del total de los pastos usados en las explotaciones. Este estudio reflejó la variabilidad de los sistemas y medios de producción (en el sentido socioeconómico, técnico y ecológico) que existe en Europa. Por ello hay que ser cautos en la implementación de las políticas comunes en los diferentes países. También encontramos que la variabilidad dentro de los países puede ser elevada debido a las diferencias entre razas, lo que implica que las políticas nacionales deber ser suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las peculiaridades de cada una de las razas. Por otro lado, encontramos una serie de factores comunes a la viabilidad de las razas en los distintos países; la edad de los ganaderos, la colaboración entre ellos y la apreciación social de las funciones culturales, medioambientales y sociales del ganado local. El envejecimiento de los ganaderos de razas locales no es solo un problema de falta de transferencia generacional, sino que también puede suponer una actitud más negativa hacia la inversión en las actividades ganaderas y en una menor capacidad de adaptación a los cambios del sector. La capacidad de adaptación de los ganaderos es un factor crucial en la viabilidad de las razas locales. Las estrategias y políticas de conservación comunes deben incluir las variables comunes a la viabilidad de las razas manteniendo flexibilidad suficiente para adaptarse a las especificidades nacionales. Estas estrategias y políticas deberían ir más allá de compensación económica a los ganaderos de razas locales por la menor productividad de sus razas. Las herramientas para la toma de decisiones ayudan a generar una visión amplia de la conservación y desarrollo de las razas locales. Estas herramientas abordan el diseño de estrategias de conservación y desarrollo de forma sistemática y estructurada. En la tercera parte de la tesis usamos una de estas herramientas, el análisis DAFO (Debilidades, Amenazas, Fortalezas y Oportunidades), con este propósito, reconociendo que la conservación de RGADs depende de los ganaderos. Desarrollamos un análisis DAFO cuantitativo y lo aplicamos a trece razas locales de ganado vacuno de seis países europeos en el contexto del proyecto de colaboración mencionado anteriormente. El método tiene cuatro pasos: 1) la definición del sistema; 2) la identificación y agrupación de los factores influyentes; 3) la cuantificación de la importancia de dichos factores y 4) la identificación y priorización de estrategias. Identificamos los factores utilizando multitud de agentes (multi-stakeholder appproach). Una vez determinados los factores se agruparon en una estructura de tres niveles. La importancia relativa de los cada uno de los factores para cada raza fue determinada por grupos de expertos en RGADs de los países integrados en el citado proyecto. Finalmente, desarrollamos un proceso de cuantificación para identificar y priorizar estrategias. La estructura de agrupación de factores permitió analizar el problema de la conservación desde el nivel general hasta el concreto. La unión de análisis específicos de cada una de las razas en un análisis DAFO común permitió evaluar la adecuación de las estrategias a cada caso concreto. Identificamos un total de 99 factores. El análisis reveló que mientras los factores menos importantes son muy consistentes entre razas, los factores y estrategias más relevantes son muy heterogéneos. La idoneidad de las estrategias fue mayor a medida que estas se hacían más generales. A pesar de dicha heterogeneidad, los factores influyentes y estrategias más importantes estaban ligados a aspectos positivos (fortalezas y oportunidades) lo que implica que el futuro de estas razas es prometedor. Los resultados de nuestro análisis también confirmaron la gran relevancia del valor cultural de estas razas. Las factores internos (fortalezas y debilidades) más importantes estaban relacionadas con los sistemas de producción y los ganaderos. Las oportunidades más relevantes estaban relacionadas con el desarrollo y marketing de nuevos productos mientras que las amenazas más importantes se encontraron a la hora de vender los productos actuales. Este resultado implica que sería fructífero trabajar en la motivación y colaboración entre ganaderos así como, en la mejora de sus capacidades. Concluimos que las políticas comunes europeas deberían centrarse en aspectos generales y ser los suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las singularidades de los países y las razas. Como ya se ha mencionado, los ganaderos juegan un papel esencial en la conservación y desarrollo de las razas autóctonas. Por ello es relevante entender que implicación puede tener la heterogeneidad de los mismos en la viabilidad de una raza. En la cuarta parte de la tesis hemos identificado tipos de ganaderos con el fin de entender cómo la relación entre la variabilidad de sus características socioeconómicas, los perfiles de las ganaderías y las dinámicas de las mismas. El análisis se ha realizado en un contexto sociológico, aplicando los conceptos de capital cultural y económico. Las tipologías se han determinado en función de factores socioeconómicos y culturales indicadores del capital cultural y capital económico de un individuo. Nuestro objetivo era estudiar si la tipología socioeconómica de los ganaderos afecta al perfil de su ganadería y a las decisiones que toman. Entrevistamos a 85 ganaderos de la raza Avileña-Negra Ibérica (ANI) y utilizamos los resultados de dichas entrevistas para ilustrar y testar el proceso. Definimos los tipos de ganaderos utilizando un análisis de clúster jerarquizado con un grupo de variables canónicas que se obtuvieron en función de cinco factores socioeconómicos: el nivel de educación del ganadero, el año en que empezó a ser ganadero de ANI, el porcentaje de los ingresos familiares que aporta la ganadería, el porcentaje de propiedad de la tierra de la explotación y la edad del ganadero. La tipología de los ganaderos de ANI resultó ser más compleja que en el pasado. Los resultados indicaron que los tipos de ganaderos variaban en muchos aspectos socioeconómicos y en los perfiles de sus Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 9 ganaderías. Los tipos de ganaderos determinados toman diferentes decisiones en relación a la modificación del tamaño de su ganadería y a sus objetivos de selección. Por otro lado, reaccionaron de forma diferente ante un hipotético escenario de reducción de las compensaciones económicas que les planteamos. En este estudio hemos visto que el capital cultural y el económico interactúan y hemos explicado como lo hacen en los distintos tipos de ganaderos. Por ejemplo, los ganaderos que poseían un mayor capital económico, capital cultural formal y capital cultural adquirido sobre la raza, eran los ganaderos cuyos animales tenían una mayor demanda por parte de otros ganaderos, lo cual podría responder a su mayor prestigio social dentro de la raza. Uno de los elementos claves para el futuro de la raza es si este prestigio responde a una superioridad genética de las animales. Esto ocurriría si los ganaderos utilizaran las herramientas que tienen a su disposición a la hora de seleccionar animales. Los tipos de ganaderos identificados mostraron también claras diferencias en sus formas de colaboración y en su reacción a una hipotética variación de las compensaciones económicas. Aunque algunos tipos de ganaderos mostraron un bajo nivel de dependencia a estas compensaciones, la mayoría se manifestaron altamente dependientes. Por ello cualquier cambio drástico en la política de ayudas puede comprometer el desarrollo de las razas autóctonas. La adaptación las políticas de compensaciones económicas a la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos podría aumentar la eficacia de las mismas por lo que sería interesante explorar posibilidades a este respecto. Concluimos destacando la necesidad de desarrollar políticas que tengan en cuenta la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos. Finalmente abordamos el estudio de la estructura genética de poblaciones ganaderas. Las decisiones de los ganaderos en relación a la selección de sementales y su número de descendientes configuran la estructura demográfica y genética de las razas. En la actualidad existe un interés renovado por estudiar las estructuras poblacionales debido a la influencia potencial de su estratificación sobre la predicción de valores genómicos y/o los análisis de asociación a genoma completo. Utilizamos dos métodos distintos, un algoritmo de clústeres basados en teoría de grafos (GCA) y un algoritmo de clustering bayesiano (STRUCTURE) para estudiar la estructura genética de la raza ANI. Prestamos especial atención al efecto de la presencia de parientes cercanos en la población y de la diferenciación genética entre subpoblaciones sobre el análisis de la estructura de la población. En primer lugar evaluamos el comportamiento de los dos algoritmos en poblaciones simuladas para posteriormente analizar los genotipos para 17 microsatélites de 13343 animales de 57 ganaderías distintas de raza ANI. La ANI es un ejemplo de raza con relaciones complejas. Por otro lado, utilizamos el archivo de pedigrí de la raza para estudiar el flujo de genes, calculando, entre otras cosas, la contribución de cada ganadería a la constitución genética de la raza. En el caso de las poblaciones simuladas, cuando el FST entre subpoblaciones fue suficientemente alto, ambos algoritmos, GCA y STRUCTURE, identificaron la misma estructura genética independientemente de que existieran o no relaciones familiares. Por el contrario, cuando el grado de diferenciación entre poblaciones fue bajo, el STRUCTURE identificó la estructura familiar mientras que GCA no permitió obtener ningún resultado concluyente. El GCA resultó ser un algoritmo más rápido y eficiente para de inferir la estructura genética en poblaciones con relaciones complejas. Este algoritmo también puede ser usado para reducir el número de clústeres a testar con el STRUTURE. En cuanto al análisis de la población de ANI, ambos algoritmos describieron la misma estructura, lo cual sugiere que los resultados son robustos. Se identificaron tres subpoblaciones diferenciadas que pudieran corresponderse con tres linajes distintos. Estos linajes estarían directamente relacionados con las ganaderías que han tenido una mayor contribución a la constitución genética de la raza. Por otro lado, hay un conjunto muy numeroso de individuos con una mezcla de orígenes. La información molecular describe una estructura estratificada de la población que se corresponde con la evolución demográfica de la raza. Es esencial analizar en mayor profundidad la composición de este último grupo de animales para determinar cómo afecta a la variabilidad genética de la población de ANI. SUMMARY Summary Livestock sector is gradually dominated by intensive and specialized systems where the production environment is controlled and the production traits are the main criteria for the selection of species and breeds. In the meantime, the traditional use of domestic animals for draught work, clothes and manure has been replaced by industrial products. As a consequence of both these changes, the intensively selected breeds closely linked with high-input highoutput production systems have displaced many native breeds where the selection has practically ceased or been very mild. People are now more aware of the state of endangerment among the native breeds and the previously ignored values of livestock are gaining recognition. For some decades now, the economic, socio-cultural, environmental and food security function of livestock breeds have been accepted worldwide and their loss has been recognized as a major problem. Therefore, the conservation of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) has been recommended. The conservation of FAnGR is controversial due to the complexity of the evaluation of its functions. This evaluation is difficult due to the nature of FAnGR both as private and public good. As some economists have highlighted, livestock animals are private goods, however, they are also public goods by their functions. Therefore, there is a need to increase the knowledge about the value of all livestock functions since to support the decision-making for the sustainable conservation and breeding of livestock. This is not straightforward since the relative importance of livestock functions depends on time, place, species and breed. Since livestock play a variety of roles, their production is driven by interrelated and everchanging economic, technical, environmental, social, cultural and political elements involving an enormous range of stakeholders. Not only FAnGR functions but also the importance of factors affecting the development and conservation of FAnGR can be very different across geographical areas. Furthermore, heterogeneity can be found even within breeds. Local breeds are nowadays raised by highly diverse farmers in equally diverse farms. It is quite reasonable to think that farmer is the major actor in the in situ conservation of livestock breeds. Thus, there is a need to understand the farmers’ motivations, decision making processes and the impact of their decisions on the genetic structure of breeds. In this PhD thesis we explore different social, economic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of local cattle breeds, i.e. FAnGR, in Europe seeking to contribute to the scientific understanding of this complex issue. We aim to achieve a comprehensive view of the processes involved in the conservation and development of local cattle breeds and have made special efforts in discussing the implications of the research results in this respect. The final outcome of the thesis is to illustrate how quantitative methods can be exploited in designing and establishing sound strategies and programmes for the conservation and development of local livestock breeds. Firstly we explored the public non-market attributes of the total economic value (TEV) of livestock, using the Spanish Alistana-Sanabresa (AS) cattle breed as a case study. Total economic value of any good comprises both use and non-use components, where the latter include option, bequest and existence values. For livestock, the direct use values are mainly stemming from production outputs. Indirect use values relate to the role of livestock as a maintainer of rural culture and landscape. The option value is related to the potential use of livestock, the bequest values relate to the value associated with the inheritance of the resources to future generation and the existence values relate to the utility perceived by people from knowing that specific resources exist. We aimed to determine the relative importance of the non-market components of the TEV of the AS breed, the socio-economic variables that influence how people value the different components of TEV and to assess the implications of the Spanish national conservation strategy for the AS breed. To do so, we used a choice experiment (CE) approach and applied the technique to assess people’s willingness to pay (WTP) for the conservation of AS breed. The use of CE allows the valuation of the individual components of TEV for a given good. We analysed the choice data using a random parameter logit (RPL) model. AS breed was found to have a significant public good value. Its most important values were related to the indirect use value due to the maintenance of Zamorian culture and the existence value (both represent over 80% of its TEV). There were several socioeconomic variables influencing people’s valuation of the public service of the breed. In the case of AS breed, the place of living (city or rural area), having seen animals of the breed, having eaten breed products and the respondents’ attitude towards economic development – environment conflicts do influence people’s WTP for AS conservation. We also found that people do not have a complete picture of all the functions and roles that AS breed as AnGR. Therefore, the actions for increasing awareness of AS should go to that direction. The farmers will need incentives to exploit some of the public goods values and maintain the breed population size at socially desirable levels. One such mechanism could be related to the development of agritourism, which would enhance the private good value and provide an important addition to the conservation and utilisation strategy. However, the farmers need a serious evaluation on how to invest in niche product development or how to improve product quality and brand recognition. Using the understanding on the importance of the public function of local cattle we tried to depict the current diversity regarding technical, economic and social factors found in local cattle farming across Europe. To do so we focused in an international collaborative project on the case of fifteen local cattle breeds in eight European countries. We investigated the variation among the countries to detect the common key elements, which affect the viability of local breeds. We surveyed with interviews a total of 355 farms across the fifteen breeds. We used the planned herd size changes by the farmer as an indicator of breed viability. The questionnaire included several economic, technical and social aspects with potential influence on breeds’ demographic trends. We analysed the data using multivariate statistical techniques, such as discriminat analysis and logistic regression. The factors affecting a local breed’s viability were highly heterogeneous across Europe. In some countries, farmers did not recognise any high social value attached to keeping a local cattle breed. Hence there is a need to develop communication programmes across EU countries making people aware about the diversity and importance of values associated to raising local breeds. The countries were also very variable regarding the importance of local markets and the percentage of farm land owned by the farmers. Despite the country specificities, there were also common factors affecting the breed viability across Europe. The factors were from different grounds, from social, such as the age of the farmer and the social appreciation of their work, to technicalorganizational, such as the farmers’ attitude to collaborating with each other. The heterogeneity found reflects the variation in breeding systems and production environment (in the socioeconomic, technical and ecological sense) present in Europe. Therefore, caution should be taken in implementing common policies at the country level. Variability could also be rather high within countries due to breed specificities. Therefore, the national policies should be flexible to adapt to the specificities. The variables significantly associated with breed viability should be positively incorporated in the conservation strategies, and considered in developing common and/or national policies. The strategy preparation and policy planning should go beyond the provision of a general economic support to compensate farmers for the lower profitability of local breeds. Of particular interest is the observation that the opportunity for farmer collaboration and the appreciation by the society of the cultural, environmental and social role of local cattle farming were positively associated with the breed survival. In addition, farmer's high age is not only a problem of poor generation transfer but it is also a problem because it might lead to a lower attitude to investing in farming activities and to a lower ability to adapt to environment changes. The farmers’ adaptation capability may be a key point for the viability of local breeds. Decision making tools can help to get a comprehensive view on the conservation and development of local breeds. It allows us to use a systematic and structured approach for identifying and prioritizing conservation and development strategies. We used SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats) analysis for this purpose and recognized that many conservation and development projects rely on farmers. We developed a quantified SWOT method and applied it in the aforementioned collaborative research to a set of thirteen cattle breeds in six European countries. The method has four steps: definition of the system, identification and grouping of the driving factors, quantification of the importance of driving factors and identification and prioritization of the strategies. The factors were determined following a multi-stakeholder approach and grouped with a three level structure. FAnGR expert groups ranked the factors and a quantification process was implemented to identify and prioritize strategies. The structure of the SWOT analysis allowed analyzing the conservation problem from general down to specific perspectives. Joining breed specific analyses into a common SWOT analysis permitted comparison of breed cases across countries. We identified 99 driving factors across breeds. The across breed analysis revealed that irrelevant factors were consistent. There was high heterogeneity among the most relevant factors and strategies. The strategies increased eligibility as they lost specificity. Although the situation was very heterogeneous, the most promising factors and strategies were linked to the positive aspects (Strengths and Opportunities). Therefore, the future of the studied local breed is promising. The results of our analysis also confirmed the high relevance of the cultural value of the breeds. The most important internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) were related farmers and production systems. The most important opportunities were found in developing and marketing new products, while the most relevant threats were found in selling the current conventional products. In this regard, it should be fruitful to work on farmers’ motivation, collaboration, and capacity building. We conclude that European policies should focus on general aspects and be flexible enough to be adapted to the country and breed specificities. As mentioned, farmers have a key role in the conservation and development of a local cattle breed. Therefore, it is very relevant to understand the implications of farmer heterogeneity within a breed for its viability. In the fourth part of the thesis, we developed a general farmer typology to help analyzing the relations between farmer features and farm profiles, herd dynamics and farmers’ decision making. In the analysis we applied and used the sociological framework of economic and cultural capital and studied how the determined farmer types were linked to farm profiles and breeding decisions, among others. The typology was based on measurable socioeconomic factors indicating the economic and cultural capital of farmers. A group of 85 farmers raising the Spanish Avileña-Negra Ibérica (ANI) local cattle breed was used to illustrate and test the procedure. The farmer types were defined by a hierarchical cluster analysis with a set of canonical variables derived from the following five the socioeconomic factors: the formal educational level of the farmer, the year the farmer started keeping the ANI breed, the percentage of the total family income covered by the farm, the percentage of the total farm land owned by the farmer and the farmer’s age. The present ANI farmer types were much more complex than what they were in the past. We found that the farmer types differed in many socioeconomic aspects and in the farms profile. Furthermore, the types also differentiate farmers with respect to decisions about changing the farm size, breeding aims and stated reactions towards hypothetical subsidy variation. We have verified that economic and cultural capitals are not independent and further showed how they are interacting in the different farmer types. The farmers related to the types with high economic, institutionalized and embodied cultural capitals had a higher demand of breeding animals from others farmers of the breed, which may be related to the higher social prestige within the breed. One of the key implications of this finding for the future of the breed is whether or not the prestige of farmers is related to genetic superiority of their animals, what is to say, that it is related with a sound use of tools that farmers have available to make selection decisions. The farmer types differed in the form of collaboration and in the reactions to the hypothetical variation in subsidies. There were farmers with low dependency on subsidies, while most of them are highly dependent on subsidies. Therefore, any drastic change in the subsidy programme might have influence on the development of local breeds. The adaptation of these programme to the farmers’ heterogeneity might increase its efficacy, thus it would be interesting to explore ways of doing it. We conclude highlighting the need to have a variety of policies, which take into account the heterogeneity among the farmers. To finish we dealt with the genetic structure of livestock populations. Farmers’ decisions on the breeding animals and their progeny numbers shape the demographic and genetic structure of the breeds. Nowadays there is a renovated interest in studying the population structure since it can bias the prediction of genomic breeding values and genome wide association studies. We determined the genetic structure of ANI breed using two different methods, a graphical clustering algorithm (GCA) and a Bayesian clustering algorithm (STRUCTURE) were used. We paid particular attention to the influence that the presence of closely related individuals and the genetic differentiation of subpopulations may have on the inferences about the population structure. We first evaluated the performance of the algorithms in simulated populations. Then we inferred the genetic structure of the Spanish cattle breed ANI analysing a data set of 13343 animals (genotyped for 17 microsatellites) from 57 herds. ANI breed is an example of a population with complex relationships. We used the herdbook to study the gene flow, estimation among other things, the contribution of different herds to the genetic composition of the ANI breed. For the simulated scenarios, when FST among subpopulations was sufficiently high, both algorithms consistently inferred the correct structure regardless of the presence of related individuals. However, when the genetic differentiation among subpopulations was low, STRUCTURE identified the family based structure while GCA did not provide any consistent picture. The GCA was a fast and efficient method to infer genetic structure to determine the hidden core structure of a population with complex history and relationships. GCA could also be used to narrow down the number of clusters to be tested by STRUCTURE. Both, STRUCTURE and GCA describe a similar structure for the ANI breed suggesting that the results are robust. ANI population was found to have three genetically differentiated clusters that could correspond to three genetic lineages. These are directly related to the herds with a major contribution to the breed. In addition, ANI breed has also a large pool made of individuals with an admixture of origins. The genetic structure of ANI, assessed by molecular information, shows a stratification that corresponds to the demographic evolution of the breed. It will be of great importance to learn more about the composition of the pool and study how it is related to the existing genetic variability of the breed.

Use of Biological Motion based Cues and Ecological Sounds in the Neurorehabilitation of Apraxia

Technological progress in the area of informatics and human interface platforms create a window of opportunities for the neurorehablitation of patients with motor impairments. The CogWatch project (www.cogwatch.eu) aims to create an intelligent assistance system to improve motor planning and execution in patients with apraxia during their daily activities. Due to the brain damage caused by cardiovascular incident these patients suffer from impairments in the ability to use tools, and to sequence actions during daily tasks (such as making breakfast). Based on the common coding theory (Hommel et al., 2001) and mirror neuron primate research (Rizzolatti et al., 2001) we aim to explore use of cues, which incorporate aspects of biological motion from healthy adults performing everyday tasks requiring tool use and ecological sounds linked to the action goal. We hypothesize that patients with apraxia will benefit from supplementary sensory information relevant to the task, which will reinforce the selection of the appropriate motor plan. Findings from this study determine the type of sensory guidance in the CogWatch interface. Rationale for the experimental design is presented and the relevant literature is discussed.

Aspects physionomiques de la végétation halo résistante et halophile du Nord et du Sud de l’Algérie occidentale

On se propose, à travers cette étude de cartographier la végétation halo résistante et halophile de deux zones de l’Algérie occidentale l’une au Nord (région de Hammam Boughrara) et l’autre au Sud (région du Chott El-Gharbi). Une comparaison de ces deux zones d’un point de vue physionomique a été menée, afin de mettre en évidence la diversité phytoécologique de ces peuplements. Les données bioclimatiques montrent que les zones d’étude sont toutes deux caractérisées par une longue période de sécheresse estivale variant de 6 à 7 mois. D’un autre côté, l’approche édaphique montre une texture limono-sableuse à sableuse aussi bien au Nord qu’au Sud. Par contre la salinité est nettement plus accentuée au Sud atteignant 1350 μ.S/cm. La carte physionomique de la végétation de la zone nord fait apparaitre la dominance de formations pures à Tamarix gallica L. (27,13%) ou à Atriplex halimus L. (37,99%), et de formations en mosaïques, où les deux genres se trouvent mêlés (16,87%). Au niveau de la zone sud deux grandes unités physionomiques se distinguent: les groupements à Salsola vermiculata L. (24 %) et les groupements à Lygeum spartum L. (6 %). Les groupements à Artemisia herba– alba Asso. occupent par contre de petites surfaces (2 %) de qualité moyenne à médiocre. Les peuplements à Arthrocnemum glaucum (Del.) Ung. quant à eux, se répartissent tout autour de la daya du Chott El-Gharbi, où la salinité est à son maximum, en constituant un tapis végétal assez dense (1 %).

Ecological-economic modeling for biodiversity management: Potential, pitfalls, and prospects

Ecologists and economists both use models to help develop strategies for biodiversity management. The practical use of disciplinary models, however, can be limited because ecological models tend not to address the socioeconomic dimension of biodiversity management, whereas economic models tend to neglect the ecological dimension. Given these shortcomings of disciplinary models, there is a necessity to combine ecological and economic knowledge into ecological-economic models. It is insufficient if scientists work separately in their own disciplines and combine their knowledge only when it comes to formulating management recommendations. Such an approach does not capture feedback loops between the ecological and the socioeconomic systems. Furthermore, each discipline poses the management problem in its own way and comes up with its own most appropriate solution. These disciplinary solutions, however are likely to be so different that a combined solution considering aspects of both disciplines cannot be found. Preconditions for a successful model-based integration of ecology and economics include (1) an in-depth knowledge of the two disciplines, (2) the adequate identification and framing of the problem to be investigated, and (3) a common understanding between economists and ecologists of modeling and scale. To further advance ecological-economic modeling the development of common benchmarks, quality controls, and refereeing standards for ecological-economic models is desirable.

Ecological studies on river pollution control

This collection of papers records a series of studies, carried out over a period of some 50 years, on two aspects of river pollution control - the prevention of pollution by sewage biological filtration and the monitoring of river pollution by biological surveillance. The earlier studies were carried out to develop methods of controlling flies which bred in the filters and caused serious nuisance and possible public health hazard, when they dispersed to surrounding villages. Although the application of insecticides proved effective as an alleviate measure, because it resulted in only a temporary disturbance of the ecological balance, it was considered ecologically unsound as a long-term solution. Subsequent investigations showed that the fly populations in filters were largely determined by the amount of food available to the grazing larval stage in the form of filter film. It was also established that the winter deterioration in filter performance was due to the excessive accumulation of film. Subsequent investigations were therefore carried out to determine the factors responsible for the accumulation of film in different types of filter. Methods of filtration which were considered to control film accumulation by increasing the flushing action of the sewage, were found to control fungal film by creating nutrient limiting conditions. In some filters increasing the hydraulic flushing reduced the grazing fauna population in the surface layers and resulted in an increase in film. The results of these investigations were successfully applied in modifying filters and in the design of a Double Filtration process. These studies on biological filters lead to the conclusion that they should be designed and operated as ecological systems and not merely as hydraulic ones. Studies on the effects of sewage effluents on Birmingham streams confirmed the findings of earlier workers justifying their claim for using biological methods for detecting and assessing river pollution. Further ecological studies showed the sensitivity of benthic riffle communities to organic pollution. Using experimental channels and laboratory studies the different environmental conditions associated with organic pollution were investigated. The degree and duration of the oxygen depletion during the dark hours were found to be a critical factor. The relative tolerance of different taxa to other pollutants, such as ammonia, differed. Although colonisation samplers proved of value in sampling difficult sites, the invertebrate data generated were not suitable for processing as any of the commonly used biotic indexes. Several of the papers, which were written by request for presentation at conferences etc., presented the biological viewpoint on river pollution and water quality issues at the time and advocated the use of biological methods. The information and experiences gained in these investigations was used as the "domain expert" in the development of artificial intelligence systems for use in the biological surveillance of river water quality.