Gene therapy in allergic encephalomyelitis using myelin basic protein-specific T cells engineered to express latent transforming growth factor-β1

A myelin basic protein (MBP)-specific BALB/c T helper 1 (Th1) clone was transduced with cDNA for murine latent transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) by coculture with fibroblasts producing a genetically engineered retrovirus. When SJL x BALB/c F1 mice, immunized 12–15 days earlier with proteolipid protein in complete Freund’s adjuvant, were injected with 3 × 106 cells from MBP-activated untransduced cloned Th1 cells, the severity of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) was slightly increased. In contrast, MBP-activated (but not resting) latent TGF-β1-transduced T cells significantly delayed and ameliorated EAE development. This protective effect was negated by simultaneously injected anti-TGF-β1. The transduced cells secreted 2–4 ng/ml of latent TGF-β1 into their culture medium, whereas control cells secreted barely detectable amounts. mRNA profiles for tumor necrosis factor, lymphotoxin, and interferon-γ were similar before and after transduction; interleukin-4 and -10 were absent. TGF-β1-transduced and antigen-activated BALB/c Th1 clones, specific for hemocyanin or ovalbumin, did not ameliorate EAE. Spinal cords from mice, taken 12 days after receiving TGF-β1-transduced, antigen-activated cells, contained detectable amounts of TGF-β1 cDNA. We conclude that latent TGF-β1-transduced, self-reactive T cell clones may be useful in the therapy of autoimmune diseases.

Prevention of autoimmune demyelination in non-human primates by a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor.

Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system that serves as a model for the human disease multiple sclerosis. We evaluated rolipram, a type IV phosphodiesterase inhibitor, for its efficacy in preventing EAE in the common marmoset Callithrix jacchus. In a blinded experimental design, clinical signs of EAE developed within 17 days of immunization with human white matter in two placebo-treated animals but in none of three monkeys that received rolipram (10 mg/kg s.c. every other day) beginning 1 week after immunization. In controls, signs of EAE were associated with development of cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis and cerebral MRI abnormalities. In the treatment group, there was sustained protection from clinical EAE, transient cerebrospinal fluid pleocytosis in only one of three animals, no MRI abnormality, and marked reduction in histopathologic findings. Rolipram-treated and control animals equally developed circulating antibodies to myelin basic protein. Thus, inhibition of type IV phosphodiesterase, initiated after sensitization to central nervous system antigens, protected against autoimmune demyelinating disease.

A peptide-binding motif for I-A(g7), the class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule of NOD and Biozzi AB/H mice

The class II major histocompatibility complex molecule I-A(g7) is strongly linked to the development of spontaneous insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) in non obese diabetic mice and to the induction of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in Biozzi AB/H mice. Structurally, it resembles the HLA-DQ molecules associated with human IDDM, in having a non-Asp residue at position 57 in its beta chain. To identify the requirements for peptide binding to I-A(g7) and thereby potentially pathogenic T cell epitopes, we analyzed a known I-A(g7)-restricted T cell epitope, hen egg white lysozyme (HEL) amino acids 9-27. NH2- and COOH-terminal truncations demonstrated that the minimal epitope for activation of the T cell hybridoma 2D12.1 was M12-R21 and the minimum sequence for direct binding to purified I-A(g7) M12-Y20/K13-R21. Alanine (A) scanning revealed two primary anchors for binding at relative positions (p) 6 (L) and 9 (Y) in the HEL epitope. The critical role of both anchors was demonstrated by incorporating L and Y in poly(A) backbones at the same relative positions as in the HEL epitope. Well-tolerated, weakly tolerated, and nontolerated residues were identified by analyzing the binding of peptides containing multiple substitutions at individual positions. Optimally, p6 was a large, hydrophobic residue (L, I, V, M), whereas p9 was aromatic and hydrophobic (Y or F) or positively charged (K, R). Specific residues were not tolerated at these and some other positions. A motif for binding to I-A(g7) deduced from analysis of the model HEL epitope was present in 27/30 (90%) of peptides reported to be I-A(g7)-restricted T cell epitopes or eluted from I-A(g7). Scanning a set of overlapping peptides encompassing human proinsulin revealed the motif in 6/6 good binders (sensitivity = 100%) and 4/13 weak or non-binders (specificity = 70%). This motif should facilitate identification of autoantigenic epitopes relevant to the pathogenesis and immunotherapy of IDDM.

Nitric oxide synthase activity and endogenous inhibitors in rats recovered from allergic encephalomyelitis

We have previously reported that in comparison with normal rats, the presence of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) leads to decreased endogenous inhibitory activity (EIA) of Ca2+-dependent nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in both brain and serum, and increased expression of protein 3-nitrotyrosine (NT) in brain. In this work we show that animals recovered from the clinical signs of EAE are not different from controls in terms of either brain NOS activity, EIA of NOS, or NT expression. These results suggest that parallel to the reversal of the disease symptoms, a normalization of the production of nitric oxide and related species occurs.

Malt1 protease inactivation efficiently dampens immune responses but causes spontaneous autoimmunity.

The protease activity of the paracaspase Malt1 has recently gained interest as a drug target for immunomodulation and the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. To address the consequences of Malt1 protease inactivation on the immune response in vivo, we generated knock-in mice expressing a catalytically inactive C472A mutant of Malt1 that conserves its scaffold function. Like Malt1-deficient mice, knock-in mice had strong defects in the activation of lymphocytes, NK and dendritic cells, and the development of B1 and marginal zone B cells and were completely protected against the induction of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Malt1 inactivation also protected the mice from experimental induction of colitis. However, Malt1 knock-in mice but not Malt1-deficient mice spontaneously developed signs of autoimmune gastritis that correlated with an absence of Treg cells, an accumulation of T cells with an activated phenotype and high serum levels of IgE and IgG1. Thus, removal of the enzymatic activity of Malt1 efficiently dampens the immune response, but favors autoimmunity through impaired Treg development, which could be relevant for therapeutic Malt1-targeting strategies.

CTLA-4 controls the thymic development of both conventional and regulatory T cells through modulation of the TCR repertoire.

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4; CD152) is of pivotal importance for self-tolerance, with deficiency or unfavorable polymorphisms leading to autoimmune disease. Tolerance to self-antigens is achieved through thymic deletion of highly autoreactive conventional T (Tconv) cells and generation of FoxP3(+) regulatory T (Treg) cells. The main costimulatory molecule, CD28, augments the negative selection of Tconv cells and promotes the generation of FoxP3(+) Treg cells. The role of its antagonistic homolog CTLA-4, however, remains a topic of debate. To address this topic, we investigated the thymic development of T cells in the presence and absence of CTLA-4 in a T-cell receptor (TCR) transgenic mouse model specific for the myelin basic protein peptide Ac1-9. We reveal that CTLA-4 is expressed in the corticomedullary region of the thymus. Its absence alters the response of CD4(+)CD8(-) thymocytes to self-antigen recognition, which affects the quantity of the Treg cells generated and broadens the repertoire of peripheral Tconv cells. T-cell repertoire alteration after deletion of CTLA-4 results from changes in TCR Vα and Jα segment selection as well as CDR3α composition in Tconv and Treg cells. CTLA-4, therefore, regulates the early development of self-reactive T cells in the thymus and plays a key role in central tolerance.

Selective in vivo visualization of immune-cell infiltration in a mouse model of autoimmune myocarditis by fluorine-19 cardiac magnetic resonance.

BACKGROUND: The goal of this study was to characterize the performance of fluorine-19 ((19)F) cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) for the specific detection of inflammatory cells in a mouse model of myocarditis. Intravenously administered perfluorocarbons are taken up by infiltrating inflammatory cells and can be detected by (19)F-CMR. (19)F-labeled cells should, therefore, generate an exclusive signal at the inflamed regions within the myocardium. METHODS AND RESULTS: Experimental autoimmune myocarditis was induced in BALB/c mice. After intravenous injection of 2×200 µL of a perfluorocarbon on day 19 and 20 (n=9) after immunization, in vivo (19)F-CMR was performed at the peak of myocardial inflammation (day 21). In 5 additional animals, perfluorocarbon combined with FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) was administered for postmortem immunofluorescence and flow-cytometry analyses. Control experiments were performed in 9 animals. In vivo (19)F-CMR detected myocardial inflammation in all experimental autoimmune myocarditis-positive animals. Its resolution was sufficient to identify even small inflammatory foci, that is, at the surface of the right ventricle. Postmortem immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry confirmed the presence of perfluorocarbon in macrophages, dendritic cells, and granulocytes, but not in lymphocytes. The myocardial volume of elevated (19)F signal (rs=0.96; P<0.001), the (19)F signal-to-noise ratio (rs=0.92; P<0.001), and the (19)F signal integral (rs=0.96; P<0.001) at day 21 correlated with the histological myocarditis severity score. CONCLUSIONS: In vivo (19)F-CMR was successfully used to visualize the inflammation specifically and robustly in experimental autoimmune myocarditis, and thus allowed for an unprecedented insight into the involvement of inflammatory cells in the disease process.

Neuroinflammatory TNFα Impairs Memory via Astrocyte Signaling.

The occurrence of cognitive disturbances upon CNS inflammation or infection has been correlated with increased levels of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). To date, however, no specific mechanism via which this cytokine could alter cognitive circuits has been demonstrated. Here, we show that local increase of TNFα in the hippocampal dentate gyrus activates astrocyte TNF receptor type 1 (TNFR1), which in turn triggers an astrocyte-neuron signaling cascade that results in persistent functional modification of hippocampal excitatory synapses. Astrocytic TNFR1 signaling is necessary for the hippocampal synaptic alteration and contextual learning-memory impairment observed in experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS). This process may contribute to the pathogenesis of cognitive disturbances in MS, as well as in other CNS conditions accompanied by inflammatory states or infections.

Pathogenèse de l’hépatite autoimmune : influence des gènes, du sexe, de l’âge et de l’environnement

L’hépatite autoimmune (HAI) résulte d’une perte de tolérance du système immunitaire envers des antigènes de l’hépatocyte. Elle peut se présenter sous forme d’hépatite aiguë, parfois fulminante, ou comme une maladie chronique menant progressivement à une cirrhose hépatique. En absence de traitement, cette maladie est fatale. La pathogenèse de l’HAI et les mécanismes responsables de sa progression restent inconnus à ce jour. L’objectif global de ce projet est d’examiner les facteurs prédisposants et les mécanismes immunologiques responsables de l’apparition et de la progression de l’HAI. Pour permettre l’étude de la pathogenèse de l’HAI, nous avons développé un modèle murin expérimental d’hépatite autoimmune de type 2. Celui-ci est basé sur la xénoimmunisation de souris C57BL/6 avec les deux antigènes ciblés dans l’HAI de type 2 chez l’homme (CYP2D6 et FTCD). Par mimétisme moléculaire, le système immunitaire de ces souris réagit contre les protéines murines homologues et une HAI s’ensuit. Ce modèle expérimental présente la plupart des caractéristiques histologiques, biochimiques et sérologiques d’une HAI de type 2. Les souris développent une inflammation autoimmune chronique avec présence d’hépatite d’interface et d’infiltrations intralobulaires, un infiltrat composé majoritairement de lymphocytes T CD4+ mais aussi de lymphocytes T CD8+ et B, d’une élévation des ALT sériques, des niveaux d’immunoglobulines G circulantes augmentés ainsi que d’autoanticorps anti-LKM1 et anti-LC1. L’étude de l’influence du bagage génétique a permis de définir l’importance relative des gènes du CMH et des gènes non-CMH sur le développement d’une HAI. Les gènes du locus CMH sont essentiels mais insuffisants pour mener au développement d’une HAI et donc, la susceptibilité génétique à l’HAI est comme chez l’homme, multigénique. Les patients atteints d’HAI de type 2 sont généralement des jeunes filles. L’étude des influences de l’âge et du sexe dans ce modèle a permis de montrer que les souris femelles avant et au début de leur maturité sexuelle sont plus susceptibles au développement d’une HAI de type 2. De plus, les femelles ont un nombre réduit de lymphocytes T régulateurs, ce qui leur confère une susceptibilité accrue comparé aux mâles. L’ensemble de ces travaux nous a conduits à proposer un mécanisme où le développement d’une HAI chez les femelles d’un âge particulier résulterait de l’activation de cellules T CD4+ autoréactives ayant échappé aux mécanismes de tolérance centrale, via un mécanisme de mimétisme moléculaire avec un antigène exogène. En présence d’une tolérance périphérique réduite due à un faible nombre de cellules T régulatrices, les cellules T autoréactives proliféreraient et activeraient des cellules B autoréactives entraînant la sécrétion d’autoanticorps. L’activation subséquente de cellules T CD8+ cytotoxiques spécifiques amènerait la lyse des hépatocytes et la relâche d’autoantigènes permettant la perpétuation de l’autoimmunité.

T cell vaccination induces T cell receptor Vβ-specific Qa-1-restricted regulatory CD8+ T cells

Vaccination of mice with activated autoantigen-reactive CD4+ T cells (T cell vaccination, TCV) has been shown to induce protection from the subsequent induction of a variety of experimental autoimmune diseases, including experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). Although the mechanisms involved in TCV-mediated protection are not completely known, there is some evidence that TCV induces CD8+ regulatory T cells that are specific for pathogenic CD4+ T cells. Previously, we demonstrated that, after superantigen administration in vivo, CD8+ T cells emerge that preferentially lyse and regulate activated autologous CD4+ T cells in a T cell receptor (TCR) Vβ-specific manner. This TCR Vβ-specific regulation is not observed in β2-microglobulin-deficient mice and is inhibited, in vitro, by antibody to Qa-1. We now show that similar Vβ8-specific Qa-1-restricted CD8+ T cells are also induced by TCV with activated CD4+ Vβ8+ T cells. These CD8+ T cells specifically lyse murine or human transfectants coexpressing Qa-1 and murine TCR Vβ8. Further, CD8+ T cell hybridoma clones generated from B10.PL mice vaccinated with a myelin basic protein-specific CD4+Vβ8+ T cell clone specifically recognize other CD4+ T cells and T cell tumors that express Vβ8 and the syngeneic Qa-1a but not the allogeneic Qa-1b molecule. Thus, Vβ-specific Qa-1-restricted CD8+ T cells are induced by activated CD4+ T cells. We suggest that these CD8+ T cells may function to specifically regulate activated CD4+ T cells during immune responses.

Dilution versus dialysis - A quantitative study of the oxidative refolding of recombinant human alpha-fetoprotein

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a commercially important polypeptide with important diagnostic. physiological and immunomodulatory functions. Previous studies into the refolding of this macromolecule are contradictory. and variously suggest that AFP denaturation may be irreversible or that refolding may be achieved by reducing denaturant concentration through dilution but not dialysis. Importantly, these same previous studies do not provide quantitative metrics by which the Success of refolding, and the potential for bioprocess development. can be assessed. Moreover, these same studies do not optimize and control refolding redox potential - an important factor considering that AFP contains 32 cysteines which form 16 disulfide bonds. In this current study, a quantitative comparison of recombinant human AFP (rhAFP) refolding by dilution and dialysis is conducted under optimized redox conditions. rhAFP refolding yields were > 35% (dialysis refolding) and > 75% (dilution refolding) as assessed by RP-HPLC and ELISA, with structural Similarity to the native state confirmed by UV spectroscopy. Dialysis refolding yield was believed to be lower because the gradual reduction in denaturant concentration allowed extended conformational searching. enabling more time for undesirable interaction with other protein molecules and/or the dialysis membrane, leading to a Sub-optimal process outcome. Significant yield sensitivity to redox environment was also observed, emphasizing the importance of physicochemical optimization. This study demonstrates that very high refolding yields can be obtained, for a physiologically relevant protein, with optimized dilution refolding. The study also highlights the quantitative metrics and macromolecular physical spectroscopic 'fingerprints' required to facilitate transition from laboratory to process scale.

Resident tissue macrophages within the normal rat iris lack immunosuppressive activity and are effective antigen-presenting cells

Despite extensive study of the numerous immunoregulatory mechanisms that contribute to the immune-privileged nature of the anterior chamber (AC) of the eye, little is known of the functional nature of antigen-presenting cells (APC) present in the tissues adjoining the AC. In the present study, we have compared the antigen-presenting capacity of dendritic cells (DC) and macrophages isolated from the normal rat iris. Whereas iris DC exhibited a potent ability to stimulate resting allogeneic T cells in MLR cultures (an in-vitro correlate of the ability to induce primary T cell responses), resident iris macrophages displayed negligible MLR-stimulatory capacity. Significantly, iris macrophages could efficiently elicit proliferation of primed antigen-specific T cells (an in-vitro correlate of the ability to act as local APC in secondary responses). This antigen-presenting activity was approximately half that of fully mature iris DC and considerably greater than that of freshly isolated iris DC. A key contributor to the effectiveness of resident iris macrophage antigen presentation was considered to be the absence of lymphocytostatic control of T cell proliferation exerted by these cells. The results indicate dichotomous but complementary roles for DC (immune surveillance) and macrophages (local antigen presentation in secondary responses) in this tissue.

Combined effect of cyclosporine and sirolimus on improving the longevity of recombinant adenovirus-mediated transgene expression in the retina

Objectives: To reevaluate the longevity and intraocular safety of recombinant adenovirus (rAd)-mediated gene delivery after subretinal injection, and to prolong transgene expression through the combination of 2 synergistic immunosuppressants. Methods: An rAd vector carrying green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was delivered subretinally in the rat eye. The GFP expression was monitored in real time by fundus fluorescent photography. Intraocular safety was examined by observation of changes of retinal pigmentation, cell infiltration in virus-contacted area, immunophenotyping for CD4(+) and CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and CD68(+) macrophages, histologic findings, and dark-adapted electroretinography. Two synergistic immunosuppressants, cyclosporine and sirolimus, were used alone or in combination to prolong transgene expression by temporary immunosuppression. Results: The GFP expression peaked on day 4, dramatically decreased on day 10, and was not detectable on day 14. The decreased GFP expression was coincident with cell infiltration in virus-contacted area. Immunostaining showed that the infiltrating cells were CD4(+) and CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes and CD68(+) macrophages. Clumped retinal pigmentation and decreased b wave of dark-adapted electroretinogram were observed at 3 to 4 weeks after injection. Histologic examination confirmed rAd-induced retinal degeneration. Transient immunosuppression by cyclosporine and sirolimus, either alone or in combination, improved transgene expression, with the combination being the most efficient. The combined immunosuppression attenuated but did not retard the rAd-induced retinal damage. Conclusions: Transgene expression mediated by rAd after subretinal delivery is short-term and toxic to the retina. Combination of cyclosporine and sirolimus may act as an immunosuppressive adjunct to prolong rAd-mediated gene transfer. Clinical Relevance: The intraocular safety of rAd should be carefully considered before clinical trials are performed.

Altering in vivo fate of heart-infiltrating progenitors from pro-fibrotic into F4/80+macrophages prevents progression of myocarditis into inflammatory dilated cardiomyopathy

Rationale: Experimental autoimmune myocarditis (EAM) mirrors important pathogenic aspects of inflammatory cardiomyopathy, a common cause of heart failure. In EAM, TGF-β-dependent conversion of heart-infiltrating prominin-1+ progenitors into myofibroblasts is critical for development of fibrosis and the end-stage heart failure phenotype. Therapeutic strategies modulating the in vivo fate of prominin-1+ progenitors might therefore prevent TGF-β-mediated cardiac fibrosis and pathological remodelling. Methods and Results: EAM was induced in BALB/c mice using alpha-myosin heavy chain (aMyHC) peptide/complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) immunization. Prominin-1+ cells were isolated from the inflamed hearts at day 21 after immunization, expanded and treated with Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (M-CSF) or Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β). Herein, we demonstrated that M-CSF turns, ex vivo and in the EAM, heart-infiltrating prominin-1+ progenitors into immunosuppressive F4/80/CD11b/CD16/32/NOS2-expressing, nitric oxide producing and E.coli bacteria phygocyting macrophages, and protect further TGF-β-stimulated differentiation into pathogenic myofibroblasts. Systemic M-CSF treatment during myocarditis completely prevented post-inflammatory fibrosis, T cell relapse and left ventricular dysfunction. Mechanistically, M-CSF-induced macrophage differentiation from prominin-1+ progenitors critically required nitric oxide synthase 2. Accordingly, M-CSF treatment failed to reduce myocardial fibrosis development in Nos2-/- mice. Conclusions: Altering the in vivo fate of inflammatory prominin-1 expressing progenitors from pro-fibrotic into the F4/80 expressing macrophage phenotype protects from myocarditis progression, cardiac fibrosis, and heart failure. These findings offer a modern therapeutic model and challenge former concepts, which attributed macrophages a detrimental role in inflammatory cardiomyopathy progression.