High-Definition Video Distribution in 802.11g Home Wireless Networks

Multimedia distribution through wireless networks in the home environment presents a number of advantages which have fueled the interest of industry in recent years, such as simple connectivity and data delivery to a variety of devices. Together with High-Definition (HD) contents, multimedia wireless networks have been proposed for several applications, such as IPTV and Digital TV distribution for multiple devices in the home environment. For these scenarios, we propose a multicast distribution system for High-Definition video over 802.11 wireless networks based on rate-limited packet retransmission. We develop a limited rate ARQ system that retransmits packets according to the importance of their content (prioritization scheme) and according to their delay limitations (delay control). The performance of our proposed ARQ system is evaluated and compared with a similarly rate-limited ARQ algorithm. The results show a higher packet recovery rate and improvements in video quality for our proposed system.

Conceptual design of the beryllium rotating target for the ESS-Bilbao facility

The ESS-Bilbao facility, hosted by the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), envisages the operation of a high-current proton accelerator delivering beams with energies up to 50 MeV. The time-averaged proton current will be 2.25 mA, delivered by 1.5 ms proton pulses with a repetition rate of 20 Hz. This beam will feed a neutron source based upon the Be (p,n) reaction, which will enable the provision of relevant neutron experimentation capabilities. The neutron source baseline concept consists in a rotating beryllium target cooled by water. The target structure will comprise a rotatable disk made of 6061-T6 aluminium alloy holding 20 beryllium plates. Heat dissipation from the target relies upon a distribution of coolant-flow channels. The practical implementation of such a concept is here described with emphasis put on the beryllium plates thermo-mechanical optimization, the chosen coolant distribution system as well as the mechanical behavior of the assembly.

Quantum key distribution based on selective post-processing in passive optical networks

One of the main obstacles to the widespread adoption of quantum cryptography has been the difficulty of integration into standard optical networks, largely due to the tremendous difference in power of classical signals compared with the single quantum used for quantum key distribution. This makes the technology expensive and hard to deploy. In this letter, we show an easy and straightforward integration method of quantum cryptography into optical access networks. In particular, we analyze how a quantum key distribution system can be seamlessly integrated in a standard access network based on the passive optical and time division multiplexing paradigms. The novelty of this proposal is based on the selective post-processing that allows for the distillation of secret keys avoiding the noise produced by other network users. Importantly, the proposal does not require the modification of the quantum or classical hardware specifications neither the use of any synchronization mechanism between the network and quantum cryptography devices.

Global optimization of solar thermophotovoltaic systems

n this paper, we present a theoretical model based on the detailed balance theory of solar thermophotovoltaic systems comprising multijunction photovoltaic cells, a sunlight concentrator and spectrally selective surfaces. The full system has been defined by means of 2n + 8 variables (being n the number of sub-cells of the multijunction cell). These variables are as follows: the sunlight concentration factor, the absorber cut-off energy, the emitter-to-absorber area ratio, the emitter cut-off energy, the band-gap energy(ies) and voltage(s) of the sub-cells, the reflectivity of the cells' back-side reflector, the emitter-to-cell and cell-to-cell view factors and the emitter-to-cell area ratio. We have used this model for carrying out a multi-variable system optimization by means of a multidimensional direct-search algorithm. This analysis allows to find the set of system variables whose combined effects results in the maximum overall system efficiency. From this analysis, we have seen that multijunction cells are excellent candidates to enhance the system efficiency and the electrical power density. Particularly, multijunction cells report great benefits for systems with a notable presence of optical losses, which are unavoidable in practical systems. Also, we have seen that the use of spectrally selective absorbers, rather than black-body absorbers, allows to achieve higher system efficiencies for both lower concentration and lower emitter-to-absorber area ratio. Finally, we have seen that sun-to-electricity conversion efficiencies above 30% and electrical power densities above 50 W/cm2 are achievable for this kind of systems.

A new analog trigger system for the Cherenkov Telescope array

La astronomía de rayos γ estudia las partículas más energéticas que llegan a la Tierra desde el espacio. Estos rayos γ no se generan mediante procesos térmicos en simples estrellas, sino mediante mecanismos de aceleración de partículas en objetos celestes como núcleos de galaxias activos, púlsares, supernovas, o posibles procesos de aniquilación de materia oscura. Los rayos γ procedentes de estos objetos y sus características proporcionan una valiosa información con la que los científicos tratan de comprender los procesos físicos que ocurren en ellos y desarrollar modelos teóricos que describan su funcionamiento con fidelidad. El problema de observar rayos γ es que son absorbidos por las capas altas de la atmósfera y no llegan a la superficie (de lo contrario, la Tierra será inhabitable). De este modo, sólo hay dos formas de observar rayos γ embarcar detectores en satélites, u observar los efectos secundarios que los rayos γ producen en la atmósfera. Cuando un rayo γ llega a la atmósfera, interacciona con las partículas del aire y genera un par electrón - positrón, con mucha energía. Estas partículas secundarias generan a su vez más partículas secundarias cada vez menos energéticas. Estas partículas, mientras aún tienen energía suficiente para viajar más rápido que la velocidad de la luz en el aire, producen una radiación luminosa azulada conocida como radiación Cherenkov durante unos pocos nanosegundos. Desde la superficie de la Tierra, algunos telescopios especiales, conocidos como telescopios Cherenkov o IACTs (Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes), son capaces de detectar la radiación Cherenkov e incluso de tomar imágenes de la forma de la cascada Cherenkov. A partir de estas imágenes es posible conocer las principales características del rayo γ original, y con suficientes rayos se pueden deducir características importantes del objeto que los emitió, a cientos de años luz de distancia. Sin embargo, detectar cascadas Cherenkov procedentes de rayos γ no es nada fácil. Las cascadas generadas por fotones γ de bajas energías emiten pocos fotones, y durante pocos nanosegundos, y las correspondientes a rayos γ de alta energía, si bien producen más electrones y duran más, son más improbables conforme mayor es su energía. Esto produce dos líneas de desarrollo de telescopios Cherenkov: Para observar cascadas de bajas energías son necesarios grandes reflectores que recuperen muchos fotones de los pocos que tienen estas cascadas. Por el contrario, las cascadas de altas energías se pueden detectar con telescopios pequeños, pero conviene cubrir con ellos una superficie grande en el suelo para aumentar el número de eventos detectados. Con el objetivo de mejorar la sensibilidad de los telescopios Cherenkov actuales, en el rango de energía alto (> 10 TeV), medio (100 GeV - 10 TeV) y bajo (10 GeV - 100 GeV), nació el proyecto CTA (Cherenkov Telescope Array). Este proyecto en el que participan más de 27 países, pretende construir un observatorio en cada hemisferio, cada uno de los cuales contará con 4 telescopios grandes (LSTs), unos 30 medianos (MSTs) y hasta 70 pequeños (SSTs). Con un array así, se conseguirán dos objetivos. En primer lugar, al aumentar drásticamente el área de colección respecto a los IACTs actuales, se detectarán más rayos γ en todos los rangos de energía. En segundo lugar, cuando una misma cascada Cherenkov es observada por varios telescopios a la vez, es posible analizarla con mucha más precisión gracias a las técnicas estereoscópicas. La presente tesis recoge varios desarrollos técnicos realizados como aportación a los telescopios medianos y grandes de CTA, concretamente al sistema de trigger. Al ser las cascadas Cherenkov tan breves, los sistemas que digitalizan y leen los datos de cada píxel tienen que funcionar a frecuencias muy altas (≈1 GHz), lo que hace inviable que funcionen de forma continua, ya que la cantidad de datos guardada será inmanejable. En su lugar, las señales analógicas se muestrean, guardando las muestras analógicas en un buffer circular de unos pocos µs. Mientras las señales se mantienen en el buffer, el sistema de trigger hace un análisis rápido de las señales recibidas, y decide si la imagen que hay en el buér corresponde a una cascada Cherenkov y merece ser guardada, o por el contrario puede ignorarse permitiendo que el buffer se sobreescriba. La decisión de si la imagen merece ser guardada o no, se basa en que las cascadas Cherenkov producen detecciones de fotones en píxeles cercanos y en tiempos muy próximos, a diferencia de los fotones de NSB (night sky background), que llegan aleatoriamente. Para detectar cascadas grandes es suficiente con comprobar que más de un cierto número de píxeles en una región hayan detectado más de un cierto número de fotones en una ventana de tiempo de algunos nanosegundos. Sin embargo, para detectar cascadas pequeñas es más conveniente tener en cuenta cuántos fotones han sido detectados en cada píxel (técnica conocida como sumtrigger). El sistema de trigger desarrollado en esta tesis pretende optimizar la sensibilidad a bajas energías, por lo que suma analógicamente las señales recibidas en cada píxel en una región de trigger y compara el resultado con un umbral directamente expresable en fotones detectados (fotoelectrones). El sistema diseñado permite utilizar regiones de trigger de tamaño seleccionable entre 14, 21 o 28 píxeles (2, 3, o 4 clusters de 7 píxeles cada uno), y con un alto grado de solapamiento entre ellas. De este modo, cualquier exceso de luz en una región compacta de 14, 21 o 28 píxeles es detectado y genera un pulso de trigger. En la versión más básica del sistema de trigger, este pulso se distribuye por toda la cámara de forma que todos los clusters sean leídos al mismo tiempo, independientemente de su posición en la cámara, a través de un delicado sistema de distribución. De este modo, el sistema de trigger guarda una imagen completa de la cámara cada vez que se supera el número de fotones establecido como umbral en una región de trigger. Sin embargo, esta forma de operar tiene dos inconvenientes principales. En primer lugar, la cascada casi siempre ocupa sólo una pequeña zona de la cámara, por lo que se guardan muchos píxeles sin información alguna. Cuando se tienen muchos telescopios como será el caso de CTA, la cantidad de información inútil almacenada por este motivo puede ser muy considerable. Por otro lado, cada trigger supone guardar unos pocos nanosegundos alrededor del instante de disparo. Sin embargo, en el caso de cascadas grandes la duración de las mismas puede ser bastante mayor, perdiéndose parte de la información debido al truncamiento temporal. Para resolver ambos problemas se ha propuesto un esquema de trigger y lectura basado en dos umbrales. El umbral alto decide si hay un evento en la cámara y, en caso positivo, sólo las regiones de trigger que superan el nivel bajo son leídas, durante un tiempo más largo. De este modo se evita guardar información de píxeles vacíos y las imágenes fijas de las cascadas se pueden convertir en pequeños \vídeos" que representen el desarrollo temporal de la cascada. Este nuevo esquema recibe el nombre de COLIBRI (Concept for an Optimized Local Image Building and Readout Infrastructure), y se ha descrito detalladamente en el capítulo 5. Un problema importante que afecta a los esquemas de sumtrigger como el que se presenta en esta tesis es que para sumar adecuadamente las señales provenientes de cada píxel, estas deben tardar lo mismo en llegar al sumador. Los fotomultiplicadores utilizados en cada píxel introducen diferentes retardos que deben compensarse para realizar las sumas adecuadamente. El efecto de estos retardos ha sido estudiado, y se ha desarrollado un sistema para compensarlos. Por último, el siguiente nivel de los sistemas de trigger para distinguir efectivamente las cascadas Cherenkov del NSB consiste en buscar triggers simultáneos (o en tiempos muy próximos) en telescopios vecinos. Con esta función, junto con otras de interfaz entre sistemas, se ha desarrollado un sistema denominado Trigger Interface Board (TIB). Este sistema consta de un módulo que irá montado en la cámara de cada LST o MST, y que estará conectado mediante fibras ópticas a los telescopios vecinos. Cuando un telescopio tiene un trigger local, este se envía a todos los vecinos conectados y viceversa, de modo que cada telescopio sabe si sus vecinos han dado trigger. Una vez compensadas las diferencias de retardo debidas a la propagación en las fibras ópticas y de los propios fotones Cherenkov en el aire dependiendo de la dirección de apuntamiento, se buscan coincidencias, y en el caso de que la condición de trigger se cumpla, se lee la cámara en cuestión, de forma sincronizada con el trigger local. Aunque todo el sistema de trigger es fruto de la colaboración entre varios grupos, fundamentalmente IFAE, CIEMAT, ICC-UB y UCM en España, con la ayuda de grupos franceses y japoneses, el núcleo de esta tesis son el Level 1 y la Trigger Interface Board, que son los dos sistemas en los que que el autor ha sido el ingeniero principal. Por este motivo, en la presente tesis se ha incluido abundante información técnica relativa a estos sistemas. Existen actualmente importantes líneas de desarrollo futuras relativas tanto al trigger de la cámara (implementación en ASICs), como al trigger entre telescopios (trigger topológico), que darán lugar a interesantes mejoras sobre los diseños actuales durante los próximos años, y que con suerte serán de provecho para toda la comunidad científica participante en CTA. ABSTRACT -ray astronomy studies the most energetic particles arriving to the Earth from outer space. This -rays are not generated by thermal processes in mere stars, but by means of particle acceleration mechanisms in astronomical objects such as active galactic nuclei, pulsars, supernovas or as a result of dark matter annihilation processes. The γ rays coming from these objects and their characteristics provide with valuable information to the scientist which try to understand the underlying physical fundamentals of these objects, as well as to develop theoretical models able to describe them accurately. The problem when observing rays is that they are absorbed in the highest layers of the atmosphere, so they don't reach the Earth surface (otherwise the planet would be uninhabitable). Therefore, there are only two possible ways to observe γ rays: by using detectors on-board of satellites, or by observing their secondary effects in the atmosphere. When a γ ray reaches the atmosphere, it interacts with the particles in the air generating a highly energetic electron-positron pair. These secondary particles generate in turn more particles, with less energy each time. While these particles are still energetic enough to travel faster than the speed of light in the air, they produce a bluish radiation known as Cherenkov light during a few nanoseconds. From the Earth surface, some special telescopes known as Cherenkov telescopes or IACTs (Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes), are able to detect the Cherenkov light and even to take images of the Cherenkov showers. From these images it is possible to know the main parameters of the original -ray, and with some -rays it is possible to deduce important characteristics of the emitting object, hundreds of light-years away. However, detecting Cherenkov showers generated by γ rays is not a simple task. The showers generated by low energy -rays contain few photons and last few nanoseconds, while the ones corresponding to high energy -rays, having more photons and lasting more time, are much more unlikely. This results in two clearly differentiated development lines for IACTs: In order to detect low energy showers, big reflectors are required to collect as much photons as possible from the few ones that these showers have. On the contrary, small telescopes are able to detect high energy showers, but a large area in the ground should be covered to increase the number of detected events. With the aim to improve the sensitivity of current Cherenkov showers in the high (> 10 TeV), medium (100 GeV - 10 TeV) and low (10 GeV - 100 GeV) energy ranges, the CTA (Cherenkov Telescope Array) project was created. This project, with more than 27 participating countries, intends to build an observatory in each hemisphere, each one equipped with 4 large size telescopes (LSTs), around 30 middle size telescopes (MSTs) and up to 70 small size telescopes (SSTs). With such an array, two targets would be achieved. First, the drastic increment in the collection area with respect to current IACTs will lead to detect more -rays in all the energy ranges. Secondly, when a Cherenkov shower is observed by several telescopes at the same time, it is possible to analyze it much more accurately thanks to the stereoscopic techniques. The present thesis gathers several technical developments for the trigger system of the medium and large size telescopes of CTA. As the Cherenkov showers are so short, the digitization and readout systems corresponding to each pixel must work at very high frequencies (_ 1 GHz). This makes unfeasible to read data continuously, because the amount of data would be unmanageable. Instead, the analog signals are sampled, storing the analog samples in a temporal ring buffer able to store up to a few _s. While the signals remain in the buffer, the trigger system performs a fast analysis of the signals and decides if the image in the buffer corresponds to a Cherenkov shower and deserves to be stored, or on the contrary it can be ignored allowing the buffer to be overwritten. The decision of saving the image or not, is based on the fact that Cherenkov showers produce photon detections in close pixels during near times, in contrast to the random arrival of the NSB phtotons. Checking if more than a certain number of pixels in a trigger region have detected more than a certain number of photons during a certain time window is enough to detect large showers. However, taking also into account how many photons have been detected in each pixel (sumtrigger technique) is more convenient to optimize the sensitivity to low energy showers. The developed trigger system presented in this thesis intends to optimize the sensitivity to low energy showers, so it performs the analog addition of the signals received in each pixel in the trigger region and compares the sum with a threshold which can be directly expressed as a number of detected photons (photoelectrons). The trigger system allows to select trigger regions of 14, 21, or 28 pixels (2, 3 or 4 clusters with 7 pixels each), and with extensive overlapping. In this way, every light increment inside a compact region of 14, 21 or 28 pixels is detected, and a trigger pulse is generated. In the most basic version of the trigger system, this pulse is just distributed throughout the camera in such a way that all the clusters are read at the same time, independently from their position in the camera, by means of a complex distribution system. Thus, the readout saves a complete camera image whenever the number of photoelectrons set as threshold is exceeded in a trigger region. However, this way of operating has two important drawbacks. First, the shower usually covers only a little part of the camera, so many pixels without relevant information are stored. When there are many telescopes as will be the case of CTA, the amount of useless stored information can be very high. On the other hand, with every trigger only some nanoseconds of information around the trigger time are stored. In the case of large showers, the duration of the shower can be quite larger, loosing information due to the temporal cut. With the aim to solve both limitations, a trigger and readout scheme based on two thresholds has been proposed. The high threshold decides if there is a relevant event in the camera, and in the positive case, only the trigger regions exceeding the low threshold are read, during a longer time. In this way, the information from empty pixels is not stored and the fixed images of the showers become to little \`videos" containing the temporal development of the shower. This new scheme is named COLIBRI (Concept for an Optimized Local Image Building and Readout Infrastructure), and it has been described in depth in chapter 5. An important problem affecting sumtrigger schemes like the one presented in this thesis is that in order to add the signals from each pixel properly, they must arrive at the same time. The photomultipliers used in each pixel introduce different delays which must be compensated to perform the additions properly. The effect of these delays has been analyzed, and a delay compensation system has been developed. The next trigger level consists of looking for simultaneous (or very near in time) triggers in neighbour telescopes. These function, together with others relating to interfacing different systems, have been developed in a system named Trigger Interface Board (TIB). This system is comprised of one module which will be placed inside the LSTs and MSTs cameras, and which will be connected to the neighbour telescopes through optical fibers. When a telescope receives a local trigger, it is resent to all the connected neighbours and vice-versa, so every telescope knows if its neighbours have been triggered. Once compensated the delay differences due to propagation in the optical fibers and in the air depending on the pointing direction, the TIB looks for coincidences, and in the case that the trigger condition is accomplished, the camera is read a fixed time after the local trigger arrived. Despite all the trigger system is the result of the cooperation of several groups, specially IFAE, Ciemat, ICC-UB and UCM in Spain, with some help from french and japanese groups, the Level 1 and the Trigger Interface Board constitute the core of this thesis, as they have been the two systems designed by the author of the thesis. For this reason, a large amount of technical information about these systems has been included. There are important future development lines regarding both the camera trigger (implementation in ASICS) and the stereo trigger (topological trigger), which will produce interesting improvements for the current designs during the following years, being useful for all the scientific community participating in CTA.

Planejamento de sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica considerando questões de confiabilidade e risco

O problema de Planejamento da Expansão de Sistemas de Distribuição (PESD) visa determinar diretrizes para a expansão da rede considerando a crescente demanda dos consumidores. Nesse contexto, as empresas distribuidoras de energia elétrica têm o papel de propor ações no sistema de distribuição com o intuito de adequar o fornecimento da energia aos padrões exigidos pelos órgãos reguladores. Tradicionalmente considera-se apenas a minimização do custo global de investimento de planos de expansão, negligenciando-se questões de confiabilidade e robustez do sistema. Como consequência, os planos de expansão obtidos levam o sistema de distribuição a configurações que são vulneráveis a elevados cortes de carga na ocorrência de contingências na rede. Este trabalho busca a elaboração de uma metodologia para inserir questões de confiabilidade e risco ao problema PESD tradicional, com o intuito de escolher planos de expansão que maximizem a robustez da rede e, consequentemente, atenuar os danos causados pelas contingências no sistema. Formulou-se um modelo multiobjetivo do problema PESD em que se minimizam dois objetivos: o custo global (que incorpora custo de investimento, custo de manutenção, custo de operação e custo de produção de energia) e o risco de implantação de planos de expansão. Para ambos os objetivos, são formulados modelos lineares inteiros mistos que são resolvidos utilizando o solver CPLEX através do software GAMS. Para administrar a busca por soluções ótimas, optou-se por programar em linguagem C++ dois Algoritmos Evolutivos: Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-2 (NSGA2) e Strength Pareto Evolutionary Algorithm-2 (SPEA2). Esses algoritmos mostraram-se eficazes nessa busca, o que foi constatado através de simulações do planejamento da expansão de dois sistemas testes adaptados da literatura. O conjunto de soluções encontradas nas simulações contém planos de expansão com diferentes níveis de custo global e de risco de implantação, destacando a diversidade das soluções propostas. Algumas dessas topologias são ilustradas para se evidenciar suas diferenças.

Real time optimization in chemical process: evaluation of strategies, improvements and industrial application.

The increasing economic competition drives the industry to implement tools that improve their processes efficiencies. The process automation is one of these tools, and the Real Time Optimization (RTO) is an automation methodology that considers economic aspects to update the process control in accordance with market prices and disturbances. Basically, RTO uses a steady-state phenomenological model to predict the process behavior, and then, optimizes an economic objective function subject to this model. Although largely implemented in industry, there is not a general agreement about the benefits of implementing RTO due to some limitations discussed in the present work: structural plant/model mismatch, identifiability issues and low frequency of set points update. Some alternative RTO approaches have been proposed in literature to handle the problem of structural plant/model mismatch. However, there is not a sensible comparison evaluating the scope and limitations of these RTO approaches under different aspects. For this reason, the classical two-step method is compared to more recently derivative-based methods (Modifier Adaptation, Integrated System Optimization and Parameter estimation, and Sufficient Conditions of Feasibility and Optimality) using a Monte Carlo methodology. The results of this comparison show that the classical RTO method is consistent, providing a model flexible enough to represent the process topology, a parameter estimation method appropriate to handle measurement noise characteristics and a method to improve the sample information quality. At each iteration, the RTO methodology updates some key parameter of the model, where it is possible to observe identifiability issues caused by lack of measurements and measurement noise, resulting in bad prediction ability. Therefore, four different parameter estimation approaches (Rotational Discrimination, Automatic Selection and Parameter estimation, Reparametrization via Differential Geometry and classical nonlinear Least Square) are evaluated with respect to their prediction accuracy, robustness and speed. The results show that the Rotational Discrimination method is the most suitable to be implemented in a RTO framework, since it requires less a priori information, it is simple to be implemented and avoid the overfitting caused by the Least Square method. The third RTO drawback discussed in the present thesis is the low frequency of set points update, this problem increases the period in which the process operates at suboptimum conditions. An alternative to handle this problem is proposed in this thesis, by integrating the classic RTO and Self-Optimizing control (SOC) using a new Model Predictive Control strategy. The new approach demonstrates that it is possible to reduce the problem of low frequency of set points updates, improving the economic performance. Finally, the practical aspects of the RTO implementation are carried out in an industrial case study, a Vapor Recompression Distillation (VRD) process located in Paulínea refinery from Petrobras. The conclusions of this study suggest that the model parameters are successfully estimated by the Rotational Discrimination method; the RTO is able to improve the process profit in about 3%, equivalent to 2 million dollars per year; and the integration of SOC and RTO may be an interesting control alternative for the VRD process.

Optimization of pipeline transport for CO2 sequestration

Coal fired power generation will continue to provide energy to the world for the foreseeable future. However, this energy use is a significant contributor to increased atmospheric CO2 concentration and, hence, global warming. Capture and disposal Of CO2 has received increased R&D attention in the last decade as the technology promises to be the most cost effective for large scale reductions in CO2 emissions. This paper addresses CO2 transport via pipeline from capture site to disposal site, in terms of system optimization, energy efficiency and overall economics. Technically, CO2 can be transported through pipelines in the form of a gas, a supercritical. fluid or in the subcooled liquid state. Operationally, most CO2 pipelines used for enhanced oil recovery transport CO2 as a supercritical fluid. In this paper, supercritical fluid and subcooled liquid transport are examined and compared, including their impacts on energy efficiency and cost. Using a commercially available process simulator, ASPEN PLUS 10.1, the results show that subcooled liquid transport maximizes the energy efficiency and minimizes the Cost Of CO2 transport over long distances under both isothermal and adiabatic conditions. Pipeline transport of subcooled liquid CO2 can be ideally used in areas of cold climate or by burying and insulating the pipeline. In very warm climates, periodic refrigeration to cool the CO2 below its critical point of 31.1 degrees C, may prove economical. Simulations have been used to determine the maximum safe pipeline distances to subsequent booster stations as a function of inlet pressure, environmental temperature and ground level heat flux conditions. (c) 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Automatic segmentation of the knee bones using 3D active shape models

This paper presents an automated segmentation approach for MR images of the knee bones. The bones are the first stage of a segmentation system for the knee, primarily aimed at the automated segmentation of the cartilages. The segmentation is performed using 3D active shape models (ASM), which are initialized using an affine registration to an atlas. The 3D ASMs of the bones are created automatically using a point distribution model optimization scheme. The accuracy and robustness of the segmentation approach was experimentally validated using an MR database of fat suppressed spoiled gradient recall images.

Improving “last mile” delivery performance to retailers in hub and spoke distribution systems

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the “last mile” delivery link between a hub and spoke distribution system and its customers. The proportion of retail, as opposed to non-retail (trade) customers using this type of distribution system has been growing in the UK. The paper shows the applicability of simulation to demonstrate changes in overall delivery policy to these customers. Design/methodology/approach – A case-based research method was chosen with the aim to provide an exemplar of practice and test the proposition that simulation can be used as a tool to investigate changes in delivery policy. Findings – The results indicate the potential improvement in delivery performance, specifically in meeting timed delivery performance, that could be made by having separate retail and non-retail delivery runs from the spoke terminal to the customer. Research limitations/implications – The simulation study does not attempt to generate a vehicle routing schedule but demonstrates the effects of a change on delivery performance when comparing delivery policies. Practical implications – Scheduling and spreadsheet software are widely used and provide useful assistance in the design of delivery runs and the allocation of staff to those delivery runs. This paper demonstrates to managers the usefulness of investigating the efficacy of current design rules and presents simulation as a suitable tool for this analysis. Originality/value – A simulation model is used in a novel application to test a change in delivery policy in response to a changing delivery profile of increased retail deliveries.

Probabilistic multiple model neural network based leak detection system:experimental study

This paper presents an effective decision making system for leak detection based on multiple generalized linear models and clustering techniques. The training data for the proposed decision system is obtained by setting up an experimental pipeline fully operational distribution system. The system is also equipped with data logging for three variables; namely, inlet pressure, outlet pressure, and outlet flow. The experimental setup is designed such that multi-operational conditions of the distribution system, including multi pressure and multi flow can be obtained. We then statistically tested and showed that pressure and flow variables can be used as signature of leak under the designed multi-operational conditions. It is then shown that the detection of leakages based on the training and testing of the proposed multi model decision system with pre data clustering, under multi operational conditions produces better recognition rates in comparison to the training based on the single model approach. This decision system is then equipped with the estimation of confidence limits and a method is proposed for using these confidence limits for obtaining more robust leakage recognition results.

Evaluating the effectiveness of signal timing optimization based on microscopic simulation evaluation

The optimization of the timing parameters of traffic signals provides for efficient operation of traffic along a signalized transportation system. Optimization tools with macroscopic simulation models have been used to determine optimal timing plans. These plans have been, in some cases, evaluated and fine tuned using microscopic simulation tools. A number of studies show inconsistencies between optimization tool results based on macroscopic simulation and the results obtained from microscopic simulation. No attempts have been made to determine the reason behind these inconsistencies. This research investigates whether adjusting the parameters of macroscopic simulation models to correspond to the calibrated microscopic simulation model parameters can reduce said inconsistencies. The adjusted parameters include platoon dispersion model parameters, saturation flow rates, and cruise speeds. The results from this work show that adjusting cruise speeds and saturation flow rates can have significant impacts on improving the optimization/macroscopic simulation results as assessed by microscopic simulation models.

AIR SIDE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN HEAT EXCHANGERS UTILIZING INNOVATIVE DESIGNS AND THE ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE

Over the last decade, rapid development of additive manufacturing techniques has allowed the fabrication of innovative and complex designs. One field that can benefit from such technology is heat exchanger fabrication, as heat exchanger design has become more and more complex due to the demand for higher performance particularly on the air side of the heat exchanger. By employing the additive manufacturing, a heat exchanger design was successfully realized, which otherwise would have been very difficult to fabricate using conventional fabrication technologies. In this dissertation, additive manufacturing technique was implemented to fabricate an advanced design which focused on a combination of heat transfer surface and fluid distribution system. Although the application selected in this dissertation is focused on power plant dry cooling applications, the results of this study can directly and indirectly benefit other sectors as well, as the air-side is often the limiting side for in liquid or single phase cooling applications. Two heat exchanger designs were studied. One was an advanced metallic heat exchanger based on manifold-microchannel technology and the other was a polymer heat exchanger based on utilization of prime surface technology. Polymer heat exchangers offer several advantages over metals such as antifouling, anticorrosion, lightweight and often less expensive than comparable metallic heat exchangers. A numerical modeling and optimization were performed to calculate a design that yield an optimum performance. The optimization results show that significant performance enhancement is noted compared to the conventional heat exchangers like wavy fins and plain plate fins. Thereafter, both heat exchangers were scaled down and fabricated using additive manufacturing and experimentally tested. The manifold-micro channel design demonstrated that despite some fabrication inaccuracies, compared to a conventional wavy-fin surface, 15% - 50% increase in heat transfer coefficient was possible for the same pressure drop value. In addition, if the fabrication inaccuracy can be eliminated, an even larger performance enhancement is predicted. Since metal based additive manufacturing is still in the developmental stage, it is anticipated that with further refinement of the manufacturing process in future designs, the fabrication accuracy can be improved. For the polymer heat exchanger, by fabricating a very thin wall heat exchanger (150μm), the wall thermal resistance, which usually becomes the limiting side for polymer heat exchanger, was calculated to account for only up to 3% of the total thermal resistance. A comparison of air-side heat transfer coefficient of the polymer heat exchanger with some of the commercially available plain plate fin surface heat exchangers show that polymer heat exchanger performance is equal or superior to plain plate fin surfaces. This shows the promising potential for polymer heat exchangers to compete with conventional metallic heat exchangers when an additive manufacturing-enabled fabrication is utilized. Major contributions of this study are as follows: (1) For the first time demonstrated the potential of additive manufacturing in metal printing of heat exchangers that benefit from a sophisticated design to yield a performance substantially above the respective conventional systems. Such heat exchangers cannot be fabricated with the conventional fabrication techniques. (2) For the first time demonstrated the potential of additive manufacturing to produce polymer heat exchangers that by design minimize the role of thermal conductivity and deliver a thermal performance equal or better that their respective metallic heat exchangers. In addition of other advantages of polymer over metal like antifouling, anticorrosion, and lightweight. Details of the work are documented in respective chapters of this thesis.

Quantifying the Resilience of an Urban Traffic-Electric Power Coupled System

Transportation system resilience has been the subject of several recent studies. To assess the resilience of a transportation network, however, it is essential to model its interactions with and reliance on other lifelines. In this work, a bi-level, mixed-integer, stochastic program is presented for quantifying the resilience of a coupled traffic-power network under a host of potential natural or anthropogenic hazard-impact scenarios. A two-layer network representation is employed that includes details of both systems. Interdependencies between the urban traffic and electric power distribution systems are captured through linking variables and logical constraints. The modeling approach was applied on a case study developed on a portion of the signalized traffic-power distribution system in southern Minneapolis. The results of the case study show the importance of explicitly considering interdependencies between critical infrastructures in transportation resilience estimation. The results also provide insights on lifeline performance from an alternative power perspective.

Real-time load-side control of electric power systems

Two trends are emerging from modern electric power systems: the growth of renewable (e.g., solar and wind) generation, and the integration of information technologies and advanced power electronics. The former introduces large, rapid, and random fluctuations in power supply, demand, frequency, and voltage, which become a major challenge for real-time operation of power systems. The latter creates a tremendous number of controllable intelligent endpoints such as smart buildings and appliances, electric vehicles, energy storage devices, and power electronic devices that can sense, compute, communicate, and actuate. Most of these endpoints are distributed on the load side of power systems, in contrast to traditional control resources such as centralized bulk generators. This thesis focuses on controlling power systems in real time, using these load side resources. Specifically, it studies two problems.

(1) Distributed load-side frequency control: We establish a mathematical framework to design distributed frequency control algorithms for flexible electric loads. In this framework, we formulate a category of optimization problems, called optimal load control (OLC), to incorporate the goals of frequency control, such as balancing power supply and demand, restoring frequency to its nominal value, restoring inter-area power flows, etc., in a way that minimizes total disutility for the loads to participate in frequency control by deviating from their nominal power usage. By exploiting distributed algorithms to solve OLC and analyzing convergence of these algorithms, we design distributed load-side controllers and prove stability of closed-loop power systems governed by these controllers. This general framework is adapted and applied to different types of power systems described by different models, or to achieve different levels of control goals under different operation scenarios. We first consider a dynamically coherent power system which can be equivalently modeled with a single synchronous machine. We then extend our framework to a multi-machine power network, where we consider primary and secondary frequency controls, linear and nonlinear power flow models, and the interactions between generator dynamics and load control.

(2) Two-timescale voltage control: The voltage of a power distribution system must be maintained closely around its nominal value in real time, even in the presence of highly volatile power supply or demand. For this purpose, we jointly control two types of reactive power sources: a capacitor operating at a slow timescale, and a power electronic device, such as a smart inverter or a D-STATCOM, operating at a fast timescale. Their control actions are solved from optimal power flow problems at two timescales. Specifically, the slow-timescale problem is a chance-constrained optimization, which minimizes power loss and regulates the voltage at the current time instant while limiting the probability of future voltage violations due to stochastic changes in power supply or demand. This control framework forms the basis of an optimal sizing problem, which determines the installation capacities of the control devices by minimizing the sum of power loss and capital cost. We develop computationally efficient heuristics to solve the optimal sizing problem and implement real-time control. Numerical experiments show that the proposed sizing and control schemes significantly improve the reliability of voltage control with a moderate increase in cost.