Simulating the effects of grassland management and grass ensiling on methane emission from lactating cows

A dynamic, mechanistic model of enteric fermentation was used to investigate the effect of type and quality of grass forage, dry matter intake (DMI) and proportion of concentrates in dietary dry matter (DM) on variation in methane (CH(4)) emission from enteric fermentation in dairy cows. The model represents substrate degradation and microbial fermentation processes in rumen and hindgut and, in particular, the effects of type of substrate fermented and of pH oil the production of individual volatile fatty acids and CH, as end-products of fermentation. Effects of type and quality of fresh and ensiled grass were evaluated by distinguishing two N fertilization rates of grassland and two stages of grass maturity. Simulation results indicated a strong impact of the amount and type of grass consumed oil CH(4) emission, with a maximum difference (across all forage types and all levels of DM 1) of 49 and 77% in g CH(4)/kg fat and protein corrected milk (FCM) for diets with a proportion of concentrates in dietary DM of 0.1 and 0.4, respectively (values ranging from 10.2 to 19.5 g CH(4)/kg FCM). The lowest emission was established for early Cut, high fertilized grass silage (GS) and high fertilized grass herbage (GH). The highest emission was found for late cut, low-fertilized GS. The N fertilization rate had the largest impact, followed by stage of grass maturity at harvesting and by the distinction between GH and GS. Emission expressed in g CH(4)/kg FCM declined oil average 14% with an increase of DMI from 14 to 18 kg/day for grass forage diets with a proportion of concentrates of 0.1, and on average 29% with an increase of DMI from 14 to 23 kg/day for diets with a proportion of concentrates of 0.4. Simulation results indicated that a high proportion of concentrates in dietary DM may lead to a further reduction of CH, emission per kg FCM mainly as a result of a higher DM I and milk yield, in comparison to low concentrate diets. Simulation results were evaluated against independent data obtained at three different laboratories in indirect calorimetry trials with COWS consuming GH mainly. The model predicted the average of observed values reasonably, but systematic deviations remained between individual laboratories and root mean squared prediction error was a proportion of 0.12 of the observed mean. Both observed and predicted emission expressed in g CH(4)/kg DM intake decreased upon an increase in dietary N:organic matter (OM) ratio. The model reproduced reasonably well the variation in measured CH, emission in cattle sheds oil Dutch dairy farms and indicated that oil average a fraction of 0.28 of the total emissions must have originated from manure under these circumstances.

Effects of gelation temperature on the mozzarella-type curd made from buffalo and cows’ milk: 2. curd yield, overall quality & casein fractions

Buffalo curd gave higher amount of yield than cows’ curd at similar processing conditions. Curd moisture was decreased with the increase of gelation temperatures in both types of milk. Curd cutting time of 45 minutes was found optimum for Mozzarella cheese making from both milk samples. Centrifugation method is simpler, quicker and more reproducible than Buchner funnel method. Buffalo milk contains higher amounts of αs1- , β- and к-casein as compared to cows’ milk.

Effects of gelation temperature on the Mozzarella-type curd made from buffalo and cows’ milk. 1: Rheology & microstructure

The rheology and microstructure of Mozzarella-type curds made from buffalo and cows’ milk were measured at gelation temperatures of 28, 34 and 39 °C after chymosin addition. The maximum curd strength (G′) was obtained at a gelation temperature of 34 °C in both types of bovine milk. The viscoelasticity (tan δ) of both curds was increased with increasing gelation temperature. The rennet coagulation time was reduced with increase of gelation temperature in both types of milk. Frequency sweep data (0.1–10Hz was recorded 90 min after chymosin addition, and both milk samples showed characteristics of weak viscoelastic gel systems. When both milk samples were subjected to shear stress to break the curd system at constant shear rate, 95 min after chymosin addition, the maximum yield stress was obtained at the gelation temperatures of 34 °C and 28 °C in buffalo and cows’ curd respectively. The cryo-SEM and CLSM techniques were used to observe the microstructure of Mozzarella-type curd. The porosity was measured using image J software. The cryo-SEM and CLSM micrographs showed that minimum porosity was observed at the gelation temperature of 34 °C in both types of milk. Buffalo curd showed minimum porosity at similar gelation temperature when compared to cows’ curd. This may be due to higher protein concentration in buffalo milk.

Mozzarella-type curd made from buffalo, cows’ and ultrafiltered cows’ milk. 1. Rheology and microstructure

Rennet-induced curd was made from both natural buffalo and cows’ milk, and ultrafiltered cows’ milk (cows’ milk was concentrated such that it had a chemical composition approximately equivalent to that of the buffalo milk). These milk samples were compared on the basis of their rheology, physicochemical characteristics and curd microstructure. The ionic and soluble calcium contents were found to be similar in all milk samples studied. The total and casein bound calcium were higher in concentrated cows’ milk than in standard cows’ milk. Both cows’ milk types were found to have lower total and casein bound calcium than the buffalo milk. This is probably due to concentration of the colloidal part of milk (casein), during the ultrafiltration (UF) process. The rennet coagulation time was similar in UF cows’ and buffalo milk while both were shorter when compared with that of the cows’ milk. The dynamic moduli (G′, G″) values were higher in both the buffalo and UF cows’ milk than in the cows’ milk after 90 min coagulation. The loss tangent, however, was found to be similar in both the UF cows’ and buffalo milk curds and was lower than that observed for the cows’ milk (0.42, 0.42 and 0.48, respectively). The frequency profile of each type of curd was recorded 90 min after the enzyme addition (0.1–10 Hz); all samples were found to be “weak” viscoelastic, frequency dependent gels. The yield stress was also measured 95 min after the enzyme addition, and a higher value was observed in buffalo milk curd when compared with other curd samples made from both the natural cows’ milk and the UF cows’ milk. The cryo-scanning electron and confocal laser scanning micrographs showed that curd structure appeared to be more “dense” and less porous in buffalo milk than cows’ milk even after concentration to equivalent levels of protein/total solids to those found in the buffalo milk.

Mozzarella-type curd made from buffalo, cows’ and ultrafiltered cows’ milk. 2. Physicochemical properties, curd yield and quality, casein fractions & micelles size

Buffalo milk contains (40–60 %) more protein, fat and calcium than cows’ milk. These constituents were enhanced by ultrafiltration (UF) of cows’ milk to give a product with similar levels to those found in the buffalo milk. Mozzarella-type curd was made from buffalo, cows’ and UF cows’ milk to compare the overall curd yield and quality. The curd yield on both dry and wet weight basis, curd moisture content and overall curd fat retention were found to be higher in the UF cows’ milk than for either the buffalo or the cows’ milk preparations. The minimum whey fat losses occurred in the UF cows’ curd when compared to the cows’ and the buffalo curd. The whey protein losses were found to be higher in the UF cows’ curd than those for the buffalo and the cows’ curds. The total mineral content of the curd was also higher in the UF cows’ milk than that found in either the buffalo or the cows’ milk. SEM micrographs showed that casein micelles sizes were different in the two different types of milk. Casein micelles were also observed to be deformed in the UF cows’ milk samples. UF cows’ milk contained higher amounts of both the αs1- and αs2-casein moieties than either the buffalo or the cows’ milk. Buffalo milk was found to contain a higher concentration of β-casein than either the UF cows’ or untreated cows’ milk samples. Gel strength was found to be higher in the resultant buffalo curd than for curds made from either native cows’ milk or those made from UF cows’ milk. The mineral distribution was also different in the three different types of bovine milk, measured by energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis. Differences in the curd quality observed between the buffalo and the cows’ milk appear to result from the differences in casein composition and overall micelle structure, rather than casein concentration alone.

Partial identification of spirochaetes from two dairy cows with digital dermatitis by polymerase chain reaction analysis of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene

Specimens taken postmortem from typical lesions of digital dermatitis in two dairy cows were tested by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of a spirochaetal 16S rRNA gene. Seven different assays detected the gene in the samples from both cows. Two of the PCR products were sequenced and a comparison of the nucleotide sequences revealed that the spirochaete belonged to the genus Treponema and was closely related to Treponema denticola. A PCR specific for the detection of the digital dermatitis-associated treponeme was developed.

Incremental effect of a calcium salt of cis-monounsaturated fatty acids supplement on milk fatty acid composition in cows fed maize silage-based diets

In most Western countries, saturated fatty acid (SFA) intake exceeds recommended levels, which is considered a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). As milk and dairy products are major contributors to SFA intake in many countries, recent research has focused on sustainable methods of producing milk with a lower saturated fat concentration by altering dairy cow diets. Human intervention studies have shown that CVD risk can be reduced by consuming dairy products with reduced SFA and increased cis-monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) concentrations. This milk fatty acid profile can be achieved by supplementing dairy cow diets with cis-MUFA-rich unsaturated oils. However, rumen exposure of unsaturated oils also leads to enhanced milk trans fatty acid (TFA) concentrations. Because of concerns about the effects of TFA consumption on CVD, feeding strategies that increase MUFA concentrations in milk without concomitant increases in TFA concentration are preferred by milk processors. In an attempt to limit TFA production and increase the replacement of SFA by cis-MUFA, a preparation of rumen-protected unsaturated oils was developed using saponification with calcium salts. Four multiparous Holstein-Friesian cows in mid-late lactation were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with 21-d periods to investigate the effect of incremental dietary inclusion of a calcium salt of cis-MUFA product (Ca-MUFA; 20, 40, and 60 g/kg of dry matter of a maize silage-based diet), on milk production, composition, and fatty acid concentration. Increasing Ca-MUFA inclusion reduced dry matter intake linearly, but no change was observed in estimated ME intake. No change in milk yield was noted, but milk fat and protein concentrations were linearly reduced. Supplementation with Ca-MUFA resulted in a linear reduction in total SFA (from 71 to 52 g/100 g of fatty acids for control and 60 g/kg of dry matter diets, respectively). In addition, concentrations of both cis- and trans-MUFA were increased with Ca-MUFA inclusion, and increases in other biohydrogenation intermediates in milk fat were also observed. The Ca-MUFA supplement was very effective at reducing milk SFA concentration and increasing cis-MUFA concentrations without incurring any negative effects on milk and milk component yields. However, reduced milk fat and protein concentrations, together with increases in milk TFA concentrations, suggest partial dissociation of the calcium salts in the rumen

Effect of forage conservation method on plasma lipids, mammary lipogenesis, and milk fatty acid composition in lactating cows fed diets containing a 60:40 forage-to-concentrate ratio

The effects of forage conservation method on plasma lipids, mammary lipogenesis, and milk fat were examined in 2 complementary experiments. Treatments comprised fresh grass, hay, or untreated (UTS) or formic acid treated silage (FAS) prepared from the same grass sward. Preparation of conserved forages coincided with the collection of samples from cows fed fresh grass. In the first experiment, 5 multiparous Finnish Ayrshire cows (229 d in milk) were used to compare a diet based on fresh grass followed by hay during 2 consecutive 14-d periods, separated by a 5-d transition during which extensively wilted grass was fed. In the second experiment, 5 multiparous Finnish Ayrshire cows (53 d in milk) were assigned to 1 of 2 blocks and allocated treatments according to a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design, with 14-d periods to compare hay, UTS, and FAS. Cows received 7 or 9 kg/d of the same concentrate in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. Arterial concentrations of triacylglycerol (TAG) and phospholipid were higher in cows fed fresh grass, UTS, and FAS compared with hay. Nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations and the relative abundance of 18:2n-6 and 18:3n-3 in TAG of arterial blood were also higher in cows fed fresh grass than conserved forages. On all diets, TAG was the principle source of fatty acids (FA) for milk fat synthesis, whereas mammary extraction of NEFA was negligible, except during zero-grazing, which was associated with a lower, albeit positive calculated energy balance. Mammary FA uptake was higher and the synthesis of 16:0 lower in cows fed fresh grass than hay. Conservation of grass by drying or ensiling had no influence on mammary extraction of TAG and NEFA, despite an increase in milk fat secretion for silages compared with hay and for FAS than UTS. Relative to hay, milk fat from fresh grass contained lower 12:0, 14:0, and 16:0 and higher S3,R7,R11,15-tetramethyl-16:0, cis-9 18:1, trans-11 18:1, cis-9,trans-11 18:2, 18:2n-6, and 18:3n-3 concentrations. Even though conserved forages altered mammary lipogenesis, differences in milk FA composition were relatively minor, other than a higher enrichment of S3,R7,R11,15-tetramethyl-16:0 in milk from silages compared with hay. In conclusion, differences in milk fat composition on fresh grass relative to conserved forages were associated with a lower energy balance, increased uptake of preformed FA, and decreased synthesis of 16:0 de novo in the mammary glands, in the absence of alterations in stearoyl-coenzyme A desaturase activity.

Short communication: plasma concentration of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide may regulate milk energy production in lactating dairy cows

In dairy cows, an increase in plasma concentration of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is associated with an increase in metabolizable energy intake, but the role of GIP in energy partitioning of dairy cattle is not certain. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between plasma GIP concentrations and energy partitioning toward milk production. Four mid-lactation, primiparous, rumenfistulated Holstein-Friesian cows were fed a control diet of 55% forage and 45% concentrate [dry matter (DM) basis] in a 4 × 4 Latin square design with 4-wk periods. The 4 treatments were (1) control diet fed at 1000 and 1600 h, and (2) once-daily (1000 h) feeding, (3) twice daily (1000 and 1600 h) feeding, and (4) 4 times/d (1000, 1600, 2200 and 0400 h) feeding of the control diet plus 1 dose (1.75 kg on a DM basis at 0955 h) into the rumen of supplemental vegetable proteins (Amino Green; SCA NuTec Ltd., Thirsk, UK). Measurements of respiratory exchange and energy balance were obtained over 4 d during the last week of each period while cows were housed in open-circuit respiration chambers. Blood was collected from the jugular vein every 30 min for 12 h, using indwelling catheters, starting at 0800 h on d 20 of each period. Plasma GIP concentration was measured in samples pooled over each 5 consecutive blood samplings. The relationships between plasma GIP, DM intake, heat production, respiratory quotient, milk yield, and milk energy output were analyzed using linear correlation procedures, with metabolizable intake as a partial variant. Plasma GIP concentration was not correlated with heat production, or milk yield, but was positively correlated with milk energy yield (correlation coefficient = 0.67) and negatively correlated with RQ (correlation coefficient = −0.72). The correlations between GIP and RQ and milk energy output do not imply causality, but suggest that a role for GIP may exist in the regulation of energy metabolism in dairy cows.

The effect of adding stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) haylage to a total mixed ration on performance and rumen function of lactating dairy cows

In vitro studies found that inclusion of dried stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) at 100 mg/g dry matter (DM) increased the pH of a rumen fluid inoculated fermentation buffer by 30% and the effect was persistent for 7 days. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of adding stinging nettle haylage to a total mixed ration on feed intake, eating and rumination activity, rumen pH, milk yield, and milk composition of lactating dairy cows. Six lactating Holstein-Friesian cows were used in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin Square design experiment with 3 treatments and 3 week periods. Treatments were a control (C) high-starch (311 g/kg DM) total mixed ration diet and two treatment diets containing 50 (N5) and 100 (N10) g nettle haylage (DM/kg) as a replacement for ryegrass silage (Lolium perenne). There was an increase (linear, P < 0.010) in the proportion of large particles and a reduction in medium (linear, P = 0.045) and fine particles (linear, P = 0.026) in the diet offered with increasing nettle inclusion. A numerical decrease (linear, P = 0.106) in DM intake (DMI) was observed as nettle inclusion in the diet increased. Milk yield averaged 20.3 kg/day and was not affected by diet. There was a decrease (quadratic, P = 0.01) in the time animals spent ruminating as nettle inclusion in the diet increased, in spite of an increase in the number of boli produced daily for the N5 diet (quadratic, P = 0.031). Animals fed the N10 diet spent less time with a rumen pH below 5.5 (P < 0.05) than cows fed the N5 diet. Averaged over an 8.5 h sampling period, there were no changes in the concentration or proportions of acetate or propionate in the rumen, but feeding nettle haylage reduced the concentrations of n-butyrate (quadratic, P < 0.001), i-butyrate (linear, P < 0.009) and n-caproate (linear, P < 0.003). Milk and fat and protein corrected milk yield were not affected when nettles replaced ryegrass silage in the diet of lactating dairy cows, despite a numerical reduction in feed intake. Rumination activity was reduced by the addition of nettle haylage to the diet, which may reflect differences in fibre structure between the nettle haylage and ryegrass silage fed. Changes observed in rumen pH suggest potential benefits of feeding nettle haylage for reducing rumen acidosis. However, the extent to which these effects were due to the fermentability and structure of the nettle haylage compared to the ryegrass silage fed, or a bioactive component of the nettles, is not certain

Effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol on methane emission,digestion, and energy and nitrogen balance of lactating dairy cows

The objective was to measure effects of 3-nitrooxypropanol (3NP) on methane production of lactating dairy cows and any associated changes in digestion and energy and nitrogen metabolism. Six Holstein-Friesian dairy cows in mid-lactation were fed twice daily a total mixed ration with maize silage as the primary forage source. Cows received 1 of 3 treatments using an experimental design based on two 3 × 3 Latin squares with 5-wk periods. Treatments were a control placebo or 500 or 2,500 mg/d of 3NP delivered directly into the rumen, via the rumen fistula, in equal doses before each feeding. Measurements of methane production and energy and nitrogen balance were obtained during wk 5 of each period using respiration calorimeters and digestion trials. Measurements of rumen pH (48 h) and postprandial volatile fatty acid and ammonia concentrations were made at the end of wk 4. Daily methane production was reduced by 3NP, but the effects were not dose dependent (reductions of 6.6 and 9.8% for 500 and 2,500 mg/d, respectively). Dosing 3NP had a transitory inhibitory effect on methane production, which may have been due to the product leaving the rumen in liquid outflow or through absorption or metabolism. Changes in rumen concentrations of volatile fatty acids indicated that the pattern of rumen fermentation was affected by both doses of the product, with a decrease in acetate:propionate ratio observed, but that acetate production was inhibited by the higher dose. Dry matter, organic matter, acid detergent fiber, N, and energy digestibility were reduced at the higher dose of the product. The decrease in digestible energy supply was not completely countered by the decrease in methane excretion such that metabolizable energy supply, metabolizable energy concentration of the diet, and net energy balance (milk plus tissue energy) were reduced by the highest dose of 3NP. Similarly, the decrease in nitrogen digestibility at the higher dose of the product was associated with a decrease in body nitrogen balance that was not observed for the lower dose. Milk yield and milk fat concentration and fatty acid composition were not affected but milk protein concentration was greater for the higher dose of 3NP. Twice-daily rumen dosing of 3NP reduced methane production by lactating dairy cows, but the dose of 2,500 mg/d reduced rumen acetate concentration, diet digestibility, and energy supply. Further research is warranted to determine the optimal dose and delivery method of the product. Key words: 3-nitrooxypropanol, methane, digestion, rumen, dairy cow

An isotope dilution model for partitioning phenylalanine and tyrosine uptake by the mammary gland of lactating dairy cows

An isotope dilution model for partitioning phenylalanine and tyrosine uptake by the mammary gland of the lactating dairy cow is constructed and solved in the steady state. The model contains four intracellular and four extracellular pools and conservation of mass principles are applied to generate the fundamental equations describing the behaviour of the system. The experimental measurements required for model solution are milk secretion and plasma flow rate across the gland in combination with phenylalanine and tyrosine concentrations and plateau isotopic enrichments in arterial and venous plasma and free and protein bound milk during a constant infusion of [1-(13)C]phenylalanine and [2,3,5,6-(2)H]tyrosine tracer. If assumptions are made, model solution enables determination of steady state flows for phenylalanine and tyrosine inflow to the gland, outflow from it and bypass, and flows representing the synthesis and degradation of constitutive protein and hydroxylation. The model is effective in providing information about the fates of phenylalanine and tyrosine in the mammary gland and could be used as part of a more complex system describing amino acid metabolism in the whole ruminant.

Effects of forage type and extruded linseed supplementation on methane production and milk fatty acid composition of lactating dairy cows

Replacing dietary grass silage (GS) with maize silage (MS) and dietary fat supplements may reduce milk concentration of specific saturated fatty acids (SFA) and can reduce methane production by dairy cows. The present study investigated the effect of feeding an extruded linseed supplement on milk fatty acid (FA) composition and methane production of lactating dairy cows, and whether basal forage type, in diets formulated for similar neutral detergent fiber and starch, altered the response to the extruded linseed supplement. Four mid-lactation Holstein-Friesian cows were fed diets as total mixed rations, containing either high proportions of MS or GS, both with or without extruded linseed supplement, in a 4 × 4 Latin square design experiment with 28-d periods. Diets contained 500 g of forage/kg of dry matter (DM) containing MS and GS in proportions (DM basis) of either 75:25 or 25:75 for high MS or high GS diets, respectively. Extruded linseed supplement (275 g/kg ether extract, DM basis) was included in treatment diets at 50 g/kg of DM. Milk yields, DM intake, milk composition, and methane production were measured at the end of each experimental period when cows were housed in respiration chambers. Whereas DM intake was higher for the MS-based diet, forage type and extruded linseed had no significant effect on milk yield, milk fat, protein, or lactose concentration, methane production, or methane per kilogram of DM intake or milk yield. Total milk fat SFA concentrations were lower with MS compared with GS-based diets (65.4 vs. 68.4 g/100 g of FA, respectively) and with extruded linseed compared with no extruded linseed (65.2 vs. 68.6 g/100 g of FA, respectively), and these effects were additive. Concentrations of total trans FA were higher with MS compared with GS-based diets (7.0 vs. 5.4 g/100 g of FA, respectively) and when extruded linseed was fed (6.8 vs. 5.6 g/100 g of FA, respectively). Total n-3 FA were higher when extruded linseed was fed compared with no extruded linseed (1.2 vs. 0.8 g/100 g of FA, respectively), whereas total n-6 polyunsaturated FA were higher when feeding MS compared with GS (2.5 vs. 2.1 g/100 g of FA, respectively). Feeding extruded linseed and MS both provided potentially beneficial decreases in SFA concentration of milk, and no significant interactions were found between extruded linseed supplementation and forage type. However, both MS and extruded linseed increased trans FA concentration in milk fat. Neither MS nor extruded linseed had significant effects on methane production or yield, but the amounts of supplemental lipid provided by extruded linseed were relatively small.

Prediction of metabolisable energy concentrations of fresh cut grass using digestibility data measured with non-pregnant non-lactating cows

Pasture-based ruminant production systems are common in certain areas of the world, but energy evaluation in grazing cattle is performed with equations developed, in their majority, with sheep or cattle fed total mixed rations. The aim of the current study was to develop predictions of metabolisable energy (ME) concentrations in fresh-cut grass offered to non-pregnant non-lactating cows at maintenance energy level, which may be more suitable for grazing cattle. Data were collected from three digestibility trials performed over consecutive grazing seasons. In order to cover a range of commercial conditions and data availability in pasture-based systems, thirty-eight equations for the prediction of energy concentrations and ratios were developed. An internal validation was performed for all equations and also for existing predictions of grass ME. Prediction error for ME using nutrient digestibility was lowest when gross energy (GE) or organic matter digestibilities were used as sole predictors, while the addition of grass nutrient contents reduced the difference between predicted and actual values, and explained more variation. Addition of N, GE and diethyl ether extract (EE) contents improved accuracy when digestible organic matter in DM was the primary predictor. When digestible energy was the primary explanatory variable, prediction error was relatively low, but addition of water-soluble carbohydrates, EE and acid-detergent fibre contents of grass decreased prediction error. Equations developed in the current study showed lower prediction errors when compared with those of existing equations, and may thus allow for an improved prediction of ME in practice, which is critical for the sustainability of pasture-based systems.