Effect of exercise training on Ca2+ release units of left ventricular myocytes of spontaneously hypertensive rats

In cardiomyocytes, calcium (Ca2+) release units comprise clusters of intracellular Ca2+ release channels located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and hypertension is well established as a cause of defects in calcium release unit function. Our objective was to determine whether endurance exercise training could attenuate the deleterious effects of hypertension on calcium release unit components and Ca2+ sparks in left ventricular myocytes of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Male Wistar and spontaneously hypertensive rats (4 months of age) were divided into 4 groups: normotensive (NC) and hypertensive control (HC), and normotensive (NT) and hypertensive trained (HT) animals (7 rats per group). NC and HC rats were submitted to a low-intensity treadmill running protocol (5 days/week, 1 h/day, 0% grade, and 50-60% of maximal running speed) for 8 weeks. Gene expression of the ryanodine receptor type 2 (RyR2) and FK506 binding protein (FKBP12.6) increased (270%) and decreased (88%), respectively, in HC compared to NC rats. Endurance exercise training reversed these changes by reducing RyR2 (230%) and normalizing FKBP12.6 gene expression (112%). Hypertension also increased the frequency of Ca2+ sparks (HC=7.61±0.26 vs NC=4.79±0.19 per 100 µm/s) and decreased its amplitude (HC=0.260±0.08 vs NC=0.324±0.10 ΔF/F0), full width at half-maximum amplitude (HC=1.05±0.08 vs NC=1.26±0.01 µm), total duration (HC=11.51±0.12 vs NC=14.97±0.24 ms), time to peak (HC=4.84±0.06 vs NC=6.31±0.14 ms), and time constant of decay (HC=8.68±0.12 vs NC=10.21±0.22 ms). These changes were partially reversed in HT rats (frequency of Ca2+ sparks=6.26±0.19 µm/s, amplitude=0.282±0.10 ΔF/F0, full width at half-maximum amplitude=1.14±0.01 µm, total duration=13.34±0.17 ms, time to peak=5.43±0.08 ms, and time constant of decay=9.43±0.15 ms). Endurance exercise training attenuated the deleterious effects of hypertension on calcium release units of left ventricular myocytes.

Rapid [Gamma]-amino acid synthesis and the inhibition of the growth and development of oblique banded leaf-roller larvae

The hypothesis that rapid y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) accumulation is a plant defense against phytophagous insects was investigated. Simulation of mechanical damage resulting from phytophagous insect activity increased soybean (Glycine max L.) leaf GABA 10- to 25-fold within 1 to 4 min. Pulverizing leaf tissue resulted in a value of 2. 15 (±O. 11 SE) ~mol GABA per gram fresh weight. Increasing the GABA levels in a synthetic diet from 1.6 to 2.6 Jlffiol GABA per gram fresh weight reduced the growth rates, developmental rates, total biomass (50% reduction), and survival rates (30% reduction) of cultured Oblique banded leaf-roller (OBLR) (Choristonellra rosacealla Harris) larvae. In field experiments OBLR larvae were found predominantly on young terminal leaves which have a reduced capacity to produce GABA in response to mechanical damage. Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) is a cytosolic enzyme which catalyses the decarboxylation of L-Glu to GABA. GAD is a calmodulin binding enzyme whose activity is stimulated dramatically by increased cytosolic H+ or Ca2 + ion concentrations. Phytophagous insect activity will disrupt the cellular compartmentation of H+ and Ca2 +, activate GAD and subsequent GABA accumulation. In animals GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. The possible mechanisms resulting in GABA inhibited growth and development of insects are discussed.

The production of 4-adminobutyrate in response to treatments reducing cytosolic pH and the regulation of intracellular pH

GABA (4-aminobutyrate) is synthesized through the decarboxylation of LGlu- (L-Glu-+ H+ ---> GABA + C02), and compared to many free amino acids is present in high concentrations in plant cells. GABA levels rise rapidly and dramatically in response to varied stress conditions including anaerobiosis. Recent papers suggest that GABA production and associated H+ consumption are parts of a metabolic pH-stat mechanism which ameliorates the intracellular pH decline associated with anaerobiosis or other treatments. To test this hypothesis GABA production and efflux have been measured in isolated Asparagus sprengeri cells in response to three treatments which potentially cause intracellular acidification. Acid loads were imposed using 60 min of (i) anaerobiosis, (ii) H+/LGlu- cotransport, and (iii) treatment with permeant weak acids (butyric, acetic and propionic). Both intra- and extracellular GABA concentrations increased more than 100% after anaerobiosis, almost 1000% after H+/L-Glu- cotransport (light or dark) and almost 5000/0 after addition of 5 mM butyric acid at pH 5.0. HPLC analysis of amino acids indicates that as GABA concentrations increased in response to butyric acid addition, glutamate concentrations decreased. Time-course studies demonstrated that added butyric acid stimulates GABA production by 2800/0 within 15 seconds. A fluorescent determination of cytosolic pH indicates that addition of butyric or other weak acids resulted in a rapid reduction in cytosolic pH of 0.6 pH units. The half time for the response to butyric acid addition is 2.1 seconds, indicating that the decline in cytosolic pH is rapid enough to account for the rapid stimulation of GABA production. The acid load in response to butyric acid addition was assayed by measurements of 14C-butyric acid uptake. Calculations indicate that GABA production accounted for 45% of the imposed acid load. The biological significance of GABA efflux is not yet understood. The results support the original hypothesis suggesting a role for GABA production in cellular pH regulation.

The regulation of oat coleoptile phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and malic enzyme by Hâ ½ and metabolites : kinetic evidence for and against a cytosolic pH-stat

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and malic enzyme activities in soluble protein extracts of Avena coleoptiles were investigated to determine whether their kinetics were consistent with a role in cytosol pH regulation. Malic enzyme activity was specific for NADP+ and Mn2+. Maximal labelled product formation from [14C]-substrates required the presence of all coenzymes, cofactors and substrates. Plots of rate versus malate concentration, and linear transformations there- 2 of, indicated typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics at non-saturating malate levels and substrate inhibition at higher malate levels. pH increases between 6.5 and 7.25 increased near-optimal activity, decreased the degree of substrate inhibition and the Kmapp(Mn2+) but did not affect the Vmax or Kmapp(malate). Transformed data of PEPC activity demonstrated non-linear plots indicative of non-Michaelian kinetics. pH increases between 7.0 and 7.6 increased the Vmax and decreased the Km app (Mg2+) but did not affect the Kmapp(PEP). Various carboxylic acids and phosphorylated sugars inhibited PEPC and malic enzyme activities, and these effects decreased with pH increases. Metabolite inhibited malic enzyme activity was non-competitive and resulted mainly from Mn2+ chelation. In contrast, metabolite inhibited PEPC activity was unique for each compound tested, being variously dependent on the PEP concentration and the pH employed. These results indicate that fluctuations in pH and metabolite levels affect PEPC and malic enzyme activities similarly and that 3 the in vitro properties of PEPC are consistent with its proposed role in a pH-stat, whereas the in vitro properties of the malic enzyme cannot be interpreted in terms of a role in pH regulation.

Étude de l'implication des navettes du pyruvate découlant du métabolisme mitochondrial du glucose dans la régulation de la sécrétion d'insuline par les cellules bêta pancréatiques

Le diabète est une maladie métabolique qui se caractérise par une résistance à l’insuline des tissus périphériques et par une incapacité des cellules β pancréatiques à sécréter les niveaux d’insuline appropriés afin de compenser pour cette résistance. Pour mieux comprendre les mécanismes déficients dans les cellules β des patients diabétiques, il est nécessaire de comprendre et de définir les mécanismes impliqués dans le contrôle de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Dans les cellules β pancréatiques, le métabolisme du glucose conduit à la production de facteurs de couplage métabolique, comme l’ATP, nécessaires à la régulation de l’exocytose des vésicules d’insuline. Le mécanisme par lequel la production de l’ATP par le métabolisme oxydatif du glucose déclenche l’exocytose des vésicules d’insuline est bien décrit dans la littérature. Cependant, il ne peut à lui seul réguler adéquatement la sécrétion d’insuline. Le malonyl-CoA et le NADPH sont deux autres facteurs de couplage métaboliques qui ont été suggérés afin de relier le métabolisme du glucose à la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline. Les mécanismes impliqués demeurent cependant à être caractérisés. Le but de la présente thèse était de déterminer l’implication des navettes du pyruvate, découlant du métabolisme mitochondrial du glucose, dans la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline. Dans les cellules β, les navettes du pyruvate découlent de la combinaison des processus d’anaplérose et de cataplérose et permettent la transduction des signaux métaboliques provenant du métabolisme du glucose. Dans une première étude, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de la navette pyruvate/citrate dans la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose, puisque cette navette conduit à la production dans le cytoplasme de deux facteurs de couplage métabolique, soit le malonyl-CoA et le NADPH. De plus, la navette pyruvate/citrate favorise le flux métabolique à travers la glycolyse en réoxydation le NADH. Une étude effectuée précédemment dans notre laboratoire avait suggéré la présence de cette navette dans les cellules β pancréatique. Afin de tester notre hypothèse, nous avons ciblé trois étapes de cette navette dans la lignée cellulaire β pancréatique INS 832/13, soit la sortie du citrate de la mitochondrie et l’activité de l’ATP-citrate lyase (ACL) et l’enzyme malique (MEc), deux enzymes clés de la navette pyruvate/citrate. L’inhibition de chacune de ces étapes par l’utilisation d’un inhibiteur pharmacologique ou de la technologie des ARN interférant a corrélé avec une réduction significative de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent que la navette pyruvate/citrate joue un rôle critique dans la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Parallèlement à notre étude, deux autres groupes de recherche ont suggéré que les navettes pyruvate/malate et pyruvate/isocitrate/α-cétoglutarate étaient aussi importantes pour la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Ainsi, trois navettes découlant du métabolisme mitochondrial du glucose pourraient être impliquées dans le contrôle de la sécrétion d’insuline. Le point commun de ces trois navettes est la production dans le cytoplasme du NADPH, un facteur de couplage métabolique possiblement très important pour la sécrétion d’insuline. Dans les navettes pyruvate/malate et pyruvate/citrate, le NADPH est formé par MEc, alors que l’isocitrate déshydrogénase (IDHc) est responsable de la production du NADPH dans la navette pyruvate/isocitrate/α-cétoglutarate. Dans notre première étude, nous avions démontré l’importance de l’expression de ME pour la sécrétion adéquate d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Dans notre deuxième étude, nous avons testé l’implication de IDHc dans les mécanismes de régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. La diminution de l’expression de IDHc dans les INS 832/13 a stimulé la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose par un mécanisme indépendant de la production de l’ATP par le métabolisme oxydatif du glucose. Ce résultat a ensuite été confirmé dans les cellules dispersées des îlots pancréatiques de rat. Nous avons aussi observé dans notre modèle que l’incorporation du glucose en acides gras était augmentée, suggérant que la diminution de l’activité de IDHc favorise la redirection du métabolisme de l’isocitrate à travers la navette pyruvate/citrate. Un mécanisme de compensation à travers la navette pyruvate/citrate pourrait ainsi expliquer la stimulation de la sécrétion d’insuline observée en réponse à la diminution de l’expression de IDHc. Les travaux effectués dans cette deuxième étude remettent en question l’implication de l’activité de IDHc, et de la navette pyruvate/isocitrate/α-cétoglutarate, dans la transduction des signaux métaboliques reliant le métabolisme du glucose à la sécrétion d’insuline. La navette pyruvate/citrate est la seule des navettes du pyruvate à conduire à la production du malonyl-CoA dans le cytoplasme des cellules β. Le malonyl-CoA régule le métabolisme des acides gras en inhibant la carnitine palmitoyl transférase 1, l’enzyme limitante dans l’oxydation des acides gras. Ainsi, l’élévation des niveaux de malonyl-CoA en réponse au glucose entraîne une redirection du métabolisme des acides gras vers les processus d’estérification puis de lipolyse. Plus précisément, les acides gras sont métabolisés à travers le cycle des triglycérides/acides gras libres (qui combinent les voies métaboliques d’estérification et de lipolyse), afin de produire des molécules lipidiques signalétiques nécessaires à la modulation de la sécrétion d’insuline. Des études effectuées précédemment dans notre laboratoire ont démontré que l’activité lipolytique de HSL (de l’anglais hormone-sensitive lipase) était importante, mais non suffisante, pour la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline. Dans une étude complémentaire, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle d’une autre lipase, soit ATGL (de l’anglais adipose triglyceride lipase), dans la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose et aux acides gras. Nous avons démontré que ATGL est exprimé dans les cellules β pancréatiques et que son activité contribue significativement à la lipolyse. Une réduction de son expression dans les cellules INS 832/13 par RNA interférant ou son absence dans les îlots pancréatiques de souris déficientes en ATGL a conduit à une réduction de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose en présence ou en absence d’acides gras. Ces résultats appuient l’hypothèse que la lipolyse est une composante importante de la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline dans les cellules β pancréatiques. En conclusion, les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse suggèrent que la navette pyruvate/citrate est importante pour la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline en réponse au glucose. Ce mécanisme impliquerait la production du NADPH et du malonyl-CoA dans le cytoplasme en fonction du métabolisme du glucose. Cependant, nos travaux remettent en question l’implication de la navette pyruvate/isocitrate/α-cétoglutarate dans la régulation de la sécrétion d’insuline. Le rôle exact de IDHc dans ce processus demeure cependant à être déterminé. Finalement, nos travaux ont aussi démontré un rôle pour ATGL et la lipolyse dans les mécanismes de couplage métabolique régulant la sécrétion d’insuline.

Calmodulin/KCa3.1 channel interactions as determinant to the KCa3.1 Ca2+ dependent gating : theoretical and experimental analyses

Differentes études ont montré que la sensibilité au Ca2+ du canal KCa3.1, un canal potassique indépendant du voltage, était conférée par la protéine calmoduline (CaM) liée de façon constitutive au canal. Cette liaison impliquerait la région C-lobe de la CaM et un domaine de $\ikca$ directement relié au segment transmembranaire S6 du canal. La CaM pourrait égalment se lier au canal de façon Ca2+ dépendante via une interaction entre un domaine de KCa3.1 du C-terminal (CaMBD2) et la région N-lobe de la CaM. Une étude fut entreprise afin de déterminer la nature des résidus responsables de la liaison entre le domaine CaMBD2 de KCa3.1 et la région N-lobe de la CaM et leur rôle dans le processus d'ouverture du canal par le Ca2+. Une structure 3D du complexe KCa3.1/CaM a d'abord été générée par modélisation par homologie avec le logiciel MODELLER en utilisant comme référence la structure cristalline du complexe SK2.2/CaM (PDB: 1G4Y). Le modèle ainsi obtenu de KCa3.1 plus CaM prévoit que le segment L361-S372 dans KCa3.1 devrait être responsable de la liaison dépendante du Ca2+ du canal avec la région N-lobe de la CaM via les résidus L361 et Q364 de KCa3.1 et E45, E47 et D50 de la CaM. Pour tester ce modèle, les résidus dans le segment L361-S372 ont été mutés en Cys et l'action du MTSET+ (chargé positivement) et MTSACE (neutre) a été mesurée sur l'activité du canal. Des enregistrements en patch clamp en configuration ``inside-out`` ont montré que la liaison du réactif chargé MTSET+ au le mutant Q364C entraîne une forte augmentation du courant, un effet non observé avec le MTSACE. De plus les mutations E45A et E47A dans la CaM, ont empêché l'augmentation du courant initié par MTSET+ sur le mutant Q364C. Une analyse en canal unitaire a confirmé que la liaison MTSET+ à Q364C cause une augmentation de la probabilité d'ouverture de KCa3.1 par une déstabilisation de l'état fermé du canal. Nous concluons que nos résultats sont compatibles avec la formation de liaisons ioniques entre les complexes chargés positivement Cys-MTSET+ à la position 364 de KCa3.1 et les résidus chargés négativement E45 et E47 dans la CaM. Ces données confirment qu'une stabilisation électrostatique des interactions CaM/KCa3.1 peut conduire à une augmentation de la probabilité d'ouverture du canal en conditions de concentrations saturantes de Ca2+.

Acute insult of ammonia leads to calcium-dependent glutamate release from cultured astrocytes, an effect of pH.

Hyperammonemia is a key factor in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) as well as other metabolic encephalopathies, such as those associated with inherited disorders of urea cycle enzymes and in Reye's syndrome. Acute HE results in increased brain ammonia (up to 5 mM), astrocytic swelling, and altered glutamatergic function. In the present study, using fluorescence imaging techniques, acute exposure (10 min) of ammonia (NH4+/NH3) to cultured astrocytes resulted in a concentration-dependent, transient increase in [Ca2+]i. This calcium transient was due to release from intracellular calcium stores, since the response was thapsigargin-sensitive and was still observed in calcium-free buffer. Using an enzyme-linked fluorescence assay, glutamate release was measured indirectly via the production of NADH (a naturally fluorescent product when excited with UV light). NH4+/NH3 (5 mM) stimulated a calcium-dependent glutamate release from cultured astrocytes, which was inhibited after preincubation with 1,2-bis(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid acetoxymethyl ester but unaffected after preincubation with glutamate transport inhibitors dihydrokainate and DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate. NH4+/NH3 (5 mM) also induced a transient intracellular alkaline shift. To investigate whether the effects of NH4+/NH3 were mediated by an increase in pH(i), we applied trimethylamine (TMA+/TMA) as another weak base. TMA+/TMA (5 mM) induced a similar transient increase in both pH(i) and [Ca2+]i (mobilization from intracellular calcium stores) and resulted in calcium-dependent release of glutamate. These results indicate that an acute exposure to ammonia, resulting in cytosolic alkalinization, leads to calcium-dependent glutamate release from astrocytes. A deregulation of glutamate release from astrocytes by ammonia could contribute to glutamate dysfunction consistently observed in acute HE.

Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptor Gene Expression and cGMP, IP3 and Ca2+ Regulation in the Brain Regions of Hypoxic Neonatal Rats: Role of Glucose, Oxygen and Epinephrine Supplementation

Department of Biotechnology, Cochin University of Science and Technology

"Functional Upregulation of Ca2+ -Activated K+ Channels in the Development of Substantia Nigra Dopamine Neurons"

Many connections in the basal ganglia are made around birth when animals are exposed to a host of new affective, cognitive, and sensori-motor stimuli. It is thought that dopamine modulates cortico-striatal synapses that result in the strengthening of those connections that lead to desired outcomes. We propose that there must be a time before which stimuli cannot be processed into functional connections, otherwise it would imply an effective link between stimulus, response, and reward in uterus. Consistent with these ideas, we present evidence that early in development dopamine neurons are electrically immature and do not produce high-frequency firing in response to salient stimuli. We ask first, what makes dopamine neurons immature? and second, what are the implications of this immaturity for the basal ganglia? As an answer to the first question, we find that at birth the outward current is small (3nS-V), insensitive to Ca2z, TEA, BK, and SK blockers. Rapidly after birth, the outward current increases to 15nS-V and becomes sensitive to Ca2z, TEA, BK, and SK blockers. We make a detailed analysis of the kinetics of the components of the outward currents and produce a model for BK and SK channels that we use to reproduce the outward current, and to infer the geometrical arrangement of BK and Ca2z channels in clusters. In the first cluster, T-type Ca2z and BK channels are coupled within distances of *20 nm (200 A˚). The second cluster consists of L-type Ca2z and BK channels that are spread over distances of at least 60 nm. As for the second question, we propose that early in development, the mechanism of action selection is in a ‘‘locked-in’’ state that would prevent dopamine neurons from reinforcing cortico-striatal synapses that do not have a functional experiential- based value.

Functional Upregulation of Ca2+ -Activated K+ Channels in the Development of Substantia Nigra Dopamine Neurons

Many connections in the basal ganglia are made around birth when animals are exposed to a host of new affective, cognitive, and sensori-motor stimuli. It is thought that dopamine modulates cortico-striatal synapses that result in the strengthening of those connections that lead to desired outcomes. We propose that there must be a time before which stimuli cannot be processed into functional connections, otherwise it would imply an effective link between stimulus, response, and reward in uterus. Consistent with these ideas, we present evidence that early in development dopamine neurons are electrically immature and do not produce high-frequency firing in response to salient stimuli. We ask first, what makes dopamine neurons immature? and second, what are the implications of this immaturity for the basal ganglia? As an answer to the first question, we find that at birth the outward current is small (3nS-V), insensitive to Ca2+, TEA, BK, and SK blockers. Rapidly after birth, the outward current increases to 15nS-V and becomes sensitive to Ca2+, TEA, BK, and SK blockers. We make a detailed analysis of the kinetics of the components of the outward currents and produce a model for BK and SK channels that we use to reproduce the outward current, and to infer the geometrical arrangement of BK and Ca2+ channels in clusters. In the first cluster, T-type Ca2+ and BK channels are coupled within distances of similar to 20 nm (200 parallel to). The second cluster consists of L-type Ca2+ and BK channels that are spread over distances of at least 60 nm. As for the second question, we propose that early in development, the mechanism of action selection is in a "locked-in" state that would prevent dopamine neurons from reinforcing cortico-striatal synapses that do not have a functional experiential-based value.

Nerve terminal GABAA receptors activate Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent signaling to inhibit voltage-gated Ca2+ influx and glutamate release

-Aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors, a family of Cl-permeable ion channels, mediate fast synaptic inhibition as postsynaptically enriched receptors for -aminobutyric acid at GABAergic synapses. Here we describe an alternative type of inhibition mediated byGABAA receptors present on neocortical glutamatergic nerve terminals and examine the underlying signaling mechanism(s). By monitoring the activity of the presynaptic CaM kinase II/synapsin I signaling pathway in isolated nerve terminals, we demonstrate that GABAA receptor activation correlated with an increase in basal intraterminal [Ca2]i. Interestingly, this activation of GABAA receptors resulted in a reduction of subsequent depolarization-evoked Ca2 influx, which thereby led to an inhibition of glutamate release. To investigate how the observed GABAA receptor-mediated modulation operates, we determined the sensitivity of this process to the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter 1 antagonist bumetanide, as well as substitution of Ca2 with Ba2, or Ca2/calmodulin inhibition by W7. All of these treatments abolished the modulation by GABAA receptors. Application of selective antagonists of voltage-gated Ca2 channels (VGCCs) revealed that the GABAA receptor-mediated modulation of glutamate release required the specific activity of L- and R-type VGCCs. Crucially, the inhibition of release by these receptors was abolished in terminals isolated from R-type VGCC knock-out mice. Together, our results indicate that a functional coupling between nerve terminal GABAA receptors and L- or R-type VGCCs is mediated by Ca2/calmodulin-dependent signaling. This mechanism provides a GABA-mediated control of glutamatergic synaptic activity by a direct inhibition of glutamate release.

Effects of neuropathy on high-voltage-activated Ca2+ current in sensory neurones

Voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCCs) have emerged as targets to treat neuropathic pain; however, amongst VDCCs, the precise role of the CaV2.3 subtype in nociception remains unproven. Here, we investigate the effects of partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) on Ca2+ currents in small/medium diameter dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurones isolated from CaV2.3(−/−) knock-out and wild-type (WT) mice. DRG neurones from CaV2.3(−/−) mice had significantly reduced sensitivity to SNX-482 versusWTmice. DRGs from CaV2.3(−/−) mice also had increased sensitivity to the CaV2.2 VDCC blocker -conotoxin. In WT mice, PSNL caused a significant increase in -conotoxin-sensitivity and a reduction in SNX-482-sensitivity. In CaV2.3(−/−) mice, PSNL caused a significant reduction in -conotoxin-sensitivity and an increase in nifedipine sensitivity. PSNL-induced changes in Ca2+ current were not accompanied by effects on voltagedependence of activation in either CaV2.3(−/−) or WT mice. These data suggest that CaV2.3 subunits contribute, but do not fully underlie, drug-resistant (R-type) Ca2+ current in these cells. In WT mice, PSNL caused adaptive changes in CaV2.2- and CaV2.3-mediated Ca2+ currents, supporting roles for these VDCCs in nociception during neuropathy. In CaV2.3(−/−) mice, PSNL-induced changes in CaV1 and CaV2.2 Ca2+ current, consistent with alternative adaptive mechanisms occurring in the absence of CaV2.3 subunits.

Annexins: multifunctional components of growth and adaptation

Plant annexins are ubiquitous, soluble proteins capable of Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent binding to endomembranes and the plasma membrane. Some members of this multigene family are capable of binding to F-actin, hydrolysing ATP and GTP, acting as peroxidases or cation channels. These multifunctional proteins are distributed throughout the plant and throughout the life cycle. Their expression and intracellular localization are under developmental and environmental control. The in vitro properties of annexins and their known, dynamic distribution patterns suggest that they could be central regulators or effectors of plant growth and stress signalling. Potentially, they could operate in signalling pathways involving cytosolic free calcium and reactive oxygen species.

The role of voltage gated T-type Ca2+ channel isoforms in mediating "capacitative" Ca2+ entry in cancer cells

The mechanism by which Ca2+ enters electrically non-excitable cells is unclear. The sensitivity of the Ca2+ entry pathway in electrically non-excitable cells to inhibition by extracellular Ni2+ was used to direct the synthesis of a library of simple, novel compounds. These novel compounds inhibit Ca2+ entry into and, consequently, proliferation of several cancer cell lines. They showed stereoselective inhibition of proliferation and Ca2+ influx with identical stereoselective inhibition of heterologously expressed Cav3.2 isoform of T-type Ca2+ channels. Proliferation of human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells transfected with the Cav3.2 Ca2+ channel was also blocked. Cancer cell lines sensitive to our compounds express message for the Cav3.2 T-type Ca2+ channel isoform, its delta25B splice variant, or both, while a cell line resistant to our compounds does not. These observations raise the possibility that clinically useful drugs can be designed based upon the ability to block these Ca2+ channels.

The effect of free Ca2+ on the heat stability and other characteristics of low-heat skim milk powder

Low-heat skim milk powder (SMP), reconstituted to 25% total solids, was found to have poor heat stability. This could be improved by reducing the free Ca2+ concentration to 1.14 mm, or lower, by the addition of either Amberlite IR-120 ion-exchange resin in its sodium form or tri-sodium citrate in skim milk prior to evaporation and spray drying. Reduction in Ca2+ concentration was accompanied by increases in pH, particle size, and kinematic viscosity, and by a reduction in zeta-potential and changes in colour. In-container sterilisation of the reconstituted powder increased particle size, zeta-potential, kinematic viscosity and a* and b* values. However. Ca2+ concentration, pH and whiteness decreased. This study elucidated the importance of Ca2+ concentration and pH on heat stability of low-heat SMP, suggesting that Ca2+ concentration and pH in bulk milk are useful indicators for ensuring that spray dried milk powder has good heat stability. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.